WEBVTT 00:00:00.000 --> 00:00:02.020 Okay, let's unpack this. Today we are attempting 00:00:02.020 --> 00:00:06.440 a deep dive into a figure so colossal, his impact 00:00:06.440 --> 00:00:09.080 wasn't just on his own generation, but on, I 00:00:09.080 --> 00:00:12.400 mean, the next 2 ,000 years of global politics. 00:00:12.640 --> 00:00:14.320 It really is staggering when you think about 00:00:14.320 --> 00:00:17.800 it. We are exploring Gaius Julius Caesar, born 00:00:17.800 --> 00:00:22.219 around 100 BC, and his story, it's more than 00:00:22.219 --> 00:00:24.280 just a biography, right? It's really the autopsy 00:00:24.280 --> 00:00:26.550 report for the Roman Republic. That is the perfect 00:00:26.550 --> 00:00:28.890 way to frame it. I mean, Caesar was a Roman general, 00:00:29.089 --> 00:00:31.670 a statesman, an author, and of course, ultimately 00:00:31.670 --> 00:00:34.770 a dictator. A man whose trajectory involved the 00:00:34.770 --> 00:00:38.820 bloody conquest of Gaul. forming the highly transactional 00:00:38.820 --> 00:00:41.679 first triumvirate, defeating his great rival 00:00:41.679 --> 00:00:44.439 Pompey in a civil war, and then, well, assuming 00:00:44.439 --> 00:00:46.920 a position of near unchallenged power. So he 00:00:46.920 --> 00:00:48.840 didn't just participate in the fall of the republic. 00:00:49.119 --> 00:00:51.659 Oh, no. You could argue he was the primary architect 00:00:51.659 --> 00:00:54.000 of its destruction. And the assassination, which, 00:00:54.079 --> 00:00:55.579 you know, was meant to restore the constitutional 00:00:55.579 --> 00:00:58.380 government. It did exactly the opposite. Completely. 00:00:58.810 --> 00:01:01.710 It triggered a new final series of civil wars 00:01:01.710 --> 00:01:04.189 that just paved the way for his great nephew 00:01:04.189 --> 00:01:06.989 and adopted heir, Octavian, to establish the 00:01:06.989 --> 00:01:10.730 Roman Empire as Augustus. So to understand the 00:01:10.730 --> 00:01:14.090 end of Rome's great experiment in, well, shared 00:01:14.090 --> 00:01:16.510 governance, we have to understand the man who 00:01:16.510 --> 00:01:19.230 broke it. And our mission today is to synthesize 00:01:19.230 --> 00:01:22.069 this massive story using a really incredibly 00:01:22.069 --> 00:01:25.459 rich stack of sources. We have... Caesar's own 00:01:25.459 --> 00:01:28.560 accounts, his Commentarii di Bello Gallico and 00:01:28.560 --> 00:01:30.599 Commentarii di Bello Civili. Which are brilliant 00:01:30.599 --> 00:01:32.780 literature, no doubt. Absolutely. But they are 00:01:32.780 --> 00:01:35.540 also fundamentally polished, self -serving political 00:01:35.540 --> 00:01:38.299 instruments. They're propaganda, really. So we 00:01:38.299 --> 00:01:40.340 have to balance that. And crucially, we can balance 00:01:40.340 --> 00:01:43.180 it with the perspectives of those who actually 00:01:43.180 --> 00:01:46.040 lived through his rise. Exactly. We'll draw on 00:01:46.040 --> 00:01:48.540 the letters and speeches of Cicero, who gives 00:01:48.540 --> 00:01:51.239 us that on -the -ground, often terrified perspective. 00:01:51.319 --> 00:01:53.819 And the contemporary history from Sallust. And 00:01:53.819 --> 00:01:56.000 of course, the indispensable, though often anecdotal, 00:01:56.000 --> 00:01:59.000 later biographies. Suetonius and Plutarch. They 00:01:59.000 --> 00:02:01.200 provide all the personal details and the drama 00:02:01.200 --> 00:02:03.280 that, you know, really keep his story alive. 00:02:03.579 --> 00:02:06.379 So the goal is to connect the big political maneuvering 00:02:06.670 --> 00:02:09.030 to the personal ambitions that drove this one 00:02:09.030 --> 00:02:12.050 man. And to grasp his lasting significance, you 00:02:12.050 --> 00:02:13.629 don't even need to look at the battlefield. You 00:02:13.629 --> 00:02:15.409 just need to look at language. I mean, consider 00:02:15.409 --> 00:02:17.990 this remarkable piece of historical nomenclature. 00:02:18.229 --> 00:02:20.090 You're talking about his name. His own family 00:02:20.090 --> 00:02:23.669 name, his cognomen Caesar, it became synonymous 00:02:23.669 --> 00:02:27.009 with political supremacy. I find this just astonishing. 00:02:27.590 --> 00:02:30.729 His name was used as a title for succession throughout 00:02:30.729 --> 00:02:33.650 the entire Roman Empire, and it is the direct 00:02:33.650 --> 00:02:36.789 linguistic root of the German Kaiser. and a Russian 00:02:36.789 --> 00:02:40.280 czar. or Tsar. It's an unbroken line. It's a 00:02:40.280 --> 00:02:43.439 continuous political legacy that is nearly unparalleled 00:02:43.439 --> 00:02:46.219 in Western history. The sources note that for 00:02:46.219 --> 00:02:49.240 approximately 2 ,000 years, from the first Roman 00:02:49.240 --> 00:02:51.919 emperors right up until the mid -20th century. 00:02:52.139 --> 00:02:56.439 The last Tsar in Bulgaria, 1946. Exactly. There 00:02:56.439 --> 00:02:58.479 was almost always at least one head of state 00:02:58.479 --> 00:03:01.099 in Europe bearing his name in some form. That 00:03:01.099 --> 00:03:03.520 tells you the scope of the political shadow he 00:03:03.520 --> 00:03:05.860 cast. Okay, so let's jump into his beginnings. 00:03:06.400 --> 00:03:09.449 We know the name The name is eternal, but the 00:03:09.449 --> 00:03:12.469 Djinn's Julius Caesar's patrician family was 00:03:12.469 --> 00:03:15.870 not exactly riding the crest of the political 00:03:15.870 --> 00:03:18.270 wave during the Middle Republic. Not at all. 00:03:18.289 --> 00:03:20.449 They had pedigree, sure, but they lacked immediate 00:03:20.449 --> 00:03:23.349 power. And what was that pedigree? Well, they 00:03:23.349 --> 00:03:26.169 famously claimed descent from Julius, the son 00:03:26.169 --> 00:03:29.210 of the Trojan hero Aeneas. Which meant they traced 00:03:29.210 --> 00:03:32.250 their lineage directly back to? The goddess Venus 00:03:32.250 --> 00:03:35.500 herself. And that divine claim would become politically 00:03:35.500 --> 00:03:38.460 very useful later, especially when his bear, 00:03:38.680 --> 00:03:41.319 Octavian, started working on his whole cult of 00:03:41.319 --> 00:03:43.379 personality. But at this point, politically, 00:03:43.599 --> 00:03:45.560 the Julius Caesars were often on the sidelines. 00:03:45.639 --> 00:03:47.659 Right. They didn't produce their first consul 00:03:47.659 --> 00:03:51.400 until 157 BC. And while Caesar's father did serve 00:03:51.400 --> 00:03:53.680 as governor of Asia, they just weren't the dominant 00:03:53.680 --> 00:03:55.759 political force of the moment. And his early 00:03:55.759 --> 00:03:57.919 life was immediately defined by this massive 00:03:57.919 --> 00:04:00.219 political conflict that threatened to end his 00:04:00.219 --> 00:04:02.659 career before it even began. You mean the dictatorship 00:04:02.659 --> 00:04:06.000 of Lucius Cornelius Sulla? Exactly. This period 00:04:06.000 --> 00:04:08.300 really revealed Caesar's defiance, didn't it? 00:04:08.520 --> 00:04:11.300 It was a moment of true existential peril for 00:04:11.300 --> 00:04:14.719 him. He was initially named Flemen Dialis, the 00:04:14.719 --> 00:04:16.779 High Priest of Jupiter. Which sounds impressive. 00:04:17.060 --> 00:04:19.100 It was a position of immense religious honor, 00:04:19.259 --> 00:04:22.000 but it was politically crippling. The Flemen 00:04:22.000 --> 00:04:24.540 Dialis was bound by all these strict religious 00:04:24.540 --> 00:04:27.459 taboos. He couldn't ride a horse, touch iron. 00:04:27.740 --> 00:04:30.579 Or even sleep away from Rome for a single night. 00:04:30.889 --> 00:04:33.389 A military or political career would have been 00:04:33.389 --> 00:04:36.230 virtually impossible. The fact he was named to 00:04:36.230 --> 00:04:38.810 this post strongly suggests that at the time, 00:04:38.810 --> 00:04:40.569 his political prospects were considered, well, 00:04:40.589 --> 00:04:43.490 pretty low. And then Sulla wins the Civil War 00:04:43.490 --> 00:04:46.850 and starts purging his political enemies. And 00:04:46.850 --> 00:04:48.990 Caesar's connected to all of them. He's connected 00:04:48.990 --> 00:04:51.730 by blood and by marriage. His Aunt Julia was 00:04:51.730 --> 00:04:54.230 the widow of Gaius Marius, Sulla's greatest enemy. 00:04:54.430 --> 00:04:56.829 And Caesar himself had married Cornelia, the 00:04:56.829 --> 00:04:59.370 daughter of Sulla's other main rival, Lucius 00:04:59.370 --> 00:05:01.970 Cornelius Cinna. So Sulla orders Caesar to do 00:05:01.970 --> 00:05:05.290 two things. First, abdicate the priesthood. Second, 00:05:05.509 --> 00:05:07.850 and more critically, to divorce Cornelia. The 00:05:07.850 --> 00:05:10.310 stakes could not have been higher. No. Refusing 00:05:10.310 --> 00:05:13.129 to obey Sulla, the man who had just prescribed 00:05:13.129 --> 00:05:15.370 thousands of Romans, was essentially inviting 00:05:15.370 --> 00:05:18.389 a death sentence. And what does Caesar do? He 00:05:18.389 --> 00:05:22.189 refuses. Both demands. He implicitly questions 00:05:22.189 --> 00:05:24.970 Sulla's authority and the legitimacy of his decrees. 00:05:25.129 --> 00:05:27.470 And for that, he was likely put on the prescription 00:05:27.470 --> 00:05:29.709 lists, or at least summoned for interrogation, 00:05:29.730 --> 00:05:31.990 which forced him to go into hiding. But he gets 00:05:31.990 --> 00:05:34.290 out of it. We have sources suggesting that Sulla 00:05:34.290 --> 00:05:37.170 was eventually persuaded to grant clemency. Yes, 00:05:37.250 --> 00:05:39.490 due to the intercession of Caesar's powerful 00:05:39.490 --> 00:05:43.149 relatives and, importantly, the respected Vestal 00:05:43.149 --> 00:05:45.290 Virgins. So what does that compromise tell us 00:05:45.290 --> 00:05:48.670 about Caesar's character so early on? It demonstrates 00:05:48.670 --> 00:05:52.009 extraordinary steel, an unwillingness to bend 00:05:52.009 --> 00:05:54.029 on matters of personal and political principle, 00:05:54.209 --> 00:05:55.970 especially when you compare him to others who 00:05:55.970 --> 00:05:57.829 just folded under Sulla's reign. There was a 00:05:57.829 --> 00:06:00.629 compromise, though. Right. He resigns the restrictive 00:06:00.629 --> 00:06:02.910 priesthood, which actually frees him up for a 00:06:02.910 --> 00:06:05.170 political career, but he gets to keep his wife. 00:06:05.589 --> 00:06:07.990 It's a moment that foreshadows the ruthless political 00:06:07.990 --> 00:06:10.550 operator he would become. He knew when to yield 00:06:10.550 --> 00:06:13.970 a minor point to preserve a major one. His reputation 00:06:13.970 --> 00:06:16.730 for loyalty, his marriage, and his political 00:06:16.730 --> 00:06:19.980 freedom. Exactly. And it was during this turbulent 00:06:19.980 --> 00:06:22.560 period that Sulla allegedly made that famous 00:06:22.560 --> 00:06:25.139 chilling remark about him. Legendary warning. 00:06:25.339 --> 00:06:28.160 Yes, that Sulla saw in Caesar many Mariuses. 00:06:28.620 --> 00:06:31.759 Now, historical evidence suggests Sulla was more 00:06:31.759 --> 00:06:34.060 careful about executing fellow patricians. But 00:06:34.060 --> 00:06:37.800 the quote, it perfectly encapsulates the fear 00:06:37.800 --> 00:06:40.379 that Caesar's ambition, even at a young age, 00:06:40.579 --> 00:06:43.439 was untamed and threatened the established order. 00:06:43.800 --> 00:06:45.620 And it became part of the political narrative 00:06:45.620 --> 00:06:48.480 used by his enemies for decades. Absolutely. 00:06:48.500 --> 00:06:51.120 So after escaping Sulla's regime, Caesar goes 00:06:51.120 --> 00:06:54.040 overseas for military service and gets his first 00:06:54.040 --> 00:06:57.000 taste of real military honor. This is when he 00:06:57.000 --> 00:07:00.399 earns the civic crown. Yes, for saving a fellow 00:07:00.399 --> 00:07:03.560 citizen at the siege of Mytilene in 81 BC. And 00:07:03.560 --> 00:07:05.600 you have to understand that crown was a huge 00:07:05.600 --> 00:07:08.079 deal. What kind of privileges came with it? It 00:07:08.079 --> 00:07:10.600 was the highest military decoration a Roman citizen 00:07:10.600 --> 00:07:13.009 could receive. The recipient had the right to 00:07:13.009 --> 00:07:15.110 wear the crown at public occasions. And whenever 00:07:15.110 --> 00:07:17.129 he entered the Senate, the senators were required 00:07:17.129 --> 00:07:19.310 to stand in his honor. So it's more than just 00:07:19.310 --> 00:07:22.050 a medal. It's a permanent public reminder of 00:07:22.050 --> 00:07:24.769 his valor. And according to the sources, it whetted 00:07:24.769 --> 00:07:27.509 his appetite for public honor. He realized the 00:07:27.509 --> 00:07:30.250 incredible power of visible status. And we have 00:07:30.250 --> 00:07:32.689 the dramatic, almost cinematic story of the pirate 00:07:32.689 --> 00:07:35.829 ransom. He's traveling to Rhodes to study rhetoric. 00:07:36.350 --> 00:07:39.089 And this incident, as recounted by Plutarch and 00:07:39.089 --> 00:07:42.370 Suetonius, it just gives you this perfect window 00:07:42.370 --> 00:07:45.769 into his confidence and his audacity. He gets 00:07:45.769 --> 00:07:48.550 intercepted by Solitian pirates and held for 00:07:48.550 --> 00:07:51.009 ransom. And the legend claims that when the pirates 00:07:51.009 --> 00:07:54.509 demanded 20 talents. Caesar insisted they demand 00:07:54.509 --> 00:07:58.050 50. He claimed he was worth more. He allegedly 00:07:58.050 --> 00:08:00.829 commanded them to be quiet while he slept, criticized 00:08:00.829 --> 00:08:03.370 their poetry, and swore that once he was freed, 00:08:03.529 --> 00:08:05.910 he would return and execute every last one of 00:08:05.910 --> 00:08:08.550 them. Which sounds like pure bluster. But he 00:08:08.550 --> 00:08:10.829 followed through. He did. After the ransom was 00:08:10.829 --> 00:08:13.449 paid and he secured his release, he immediately 00:08:13.449 --> 00:08:15.910 raised a fleet, returned to the island where 00:08:15.910 --> 00:08:18.069 he'd been held, and captured the pirates. And 00:08:18.069 --> 00:08:20.129 executed them. Well, depending on the source, 00:08:20.269 --> 00:08:23.209 either executed them or, more likely given Roman 00:08:23.209 --> 00:08:26.800 practice, sold them into slavery. But regardless 00:08:26.800 --> 00:08:29.699 of the exact details, the action was swift, decisive, 00:08:29.980 --> 00:08:33.139 and vindictive. It cemented his reputation for 00:08:33.139 --> 00:08:35.220 having the courage of his conviction. And it 00:08:35.220 --> 00:08:37.620 demonstrated a pragmatic ruthlessness that would 00:08:37.620 --> 00:08:40.679 become his hallmark. Absolutely. So when he returns 00:08:40.679 --> 00:08:43.259 to Rome, he starts his climb up the political 00:08:43.259 --> 00:08:46.659 ladder. And the ascent was very strategic. In 00:08:46.659 --> 00:08:50.000 73 BC, he's co -opted into the pontifices, which 00:08:50.000 --> 00:08:52.820 marks him as a recognized member of the aristocracy. 00:08:53.289 --> 00:08:55.350 Then comes the high -stakes political theater 00:08:55.350 --> 00:08:58.710 in 69 BC, following the deaths of his Aunt Julia 00:08:58.710 --> 00:09:01.389 and his wife Cornelia. At their public funerals, 00:09:01.389 --> 00:09:03.590 Caesar gave eulogies, which was pretty standard 00:09:03.590 --> 00:09:06.049 aristocratic practice. But at Julia's funeral, 00:09:06.250 --> 00:09:08.690 he went a step further. He displayed the imagines, 00:09:08.710 --> 00:09:11.610 the wax masks of her deceased husband, Gaius 00:09:11.610 --> 00:09:13.990 Marius. Which was deeply shocking to the sullen 00:09:13.990 --> 00:09:16.549 establishment. Marius' images had been banned 00:09:16.549 --> 00:09:19.009 and suppressed after the Civil War. So this wasn't 00:09:19.009 --> 00:09:21.549 just a heartfelt family eulogy. This was a calculated 00:09:21.549 --> 00:09:24.700 political statement. Oh, absolutely. It was establishing 00:09:24.700 --> 00:09:28.080 him as the heir to the popular Marion faction. 00:09:28.340 --> 00:09:30.279 He's positioning himself as a popular leader. 00:09:30.500 --> 00:09:33.309 Precisely. While Plutarch saw it as just blatant 00:09:33.309 --> 00:09:35.649 factionalism, it was strategically brilliant. 00:09:35.870 --> 00:09:38.370 He was appealing directly to the urban plebs 00:09:38.370 --> 00:09:41.210 who revered Marius and establishing his identity 00:09:41.210 --> 00:09:43.230 as someone who would champion popular rights 00:09:43.230 --> 00:09:46.389 against the entrenched optimates, the hardline 00:09:46.389 --> 00:09:49.370 senatorial elite. He also started building bridges 00:09:49.370 --> 00:09:51.870 with Rome's most powerful military figure at 00:09:51.870 --> 00:09:54.610 the time, Pompey. Yes, he actively supported 00:09:54.610 --> 00:09:57.529 the legislation, granting Pompey these extraordinary 00:09:57.529 --> 00:10:00.470 commands, like the Lex Gabinia against piracy. 00:10:00.879 --> 00:10:03.019 and the Lex Manilia for the Third Mithridatic 00:10:03.019 --> 00:10:05.820 War. So this wasn't merely supporting good policy. 00:10:06.019 --> 00:10:08.019 Not at all. This was laying the groundwork for 00:10:08.019 --> 00:10:11.159 future cooperation. He saw Pompeii as a key strategic 00:10:11.159 --> 00:10:14.169 ally for his own future. And that alliance solidified 00:10:14.169 --> 00:10:16.250 as Caesar pursued the traditional sequence of 00:10:16.250 --> 00:10:18.909 Roman magistracies, the cursus honorum. Right. 00:10:18.990 --> 00:10:22.409 And as curule edile in 65 BC, he staged these 00:10:22.409 --> 00:10:25.429 famously lavish public games, absolutely necessary 00:10:25.429 --> 00:10:28.309 to win popular support. But it also caused him 00:10:28.309 --> 00:10:31.289 to accumulate just massive debts. And it was 00:10:31.289 --> 00:10:33.750 during his edileship that he publicly restored 00:10:33.750 --> 00:10:36.350 the military trophies of Marius that Sulla had 00:10:36.350 --> 00:10:38.970 removed. Yes. And ancient sources often frame 00:10:38.970 --> 00:10:41.769 this as some secret overnight operation where 00:10:41.769 --> 00:10:43.769 he... snuck the trophies back up. Which sounds 00:10:43.769 --> 00:10:46.289 a bit dramatic. That narrative, while great theater, 00:10:46.389 --> 00:10:48.370 is almost certainly political embellishment. 00:10:48.870 --> 00:10:51.169 Restoring massive public monuments and their 00:10:51.169 --> 00:10:53.710 bronze sculptures isn't exactly a secret task. 00:10:53.970 --> 00:10:57.850 You need architects, financing, workmen. It was 00:10:57.850 --> 00:11:00.230 a well -planned public event designed to reinforce 00:11:00.230 --> 00:11:03.009 his image. The man of the people, the champion 00:11:03.009 --> 00:11:05.940 of the Marian legacy. Despite immediate and fierce 00:11:05.940 --> 00:11:08.500 objections from conservative senators like Cashless, 00:11:08.720 --> 00:11:10.840 everything Caesar did was a public relations 00:11:10.840 --> 00:11:14.860 move. His ascent then climaxed in 63 B .C. when 00:11:14.860 --> 00:11:16.740 he sought and won the highest state religious 00:11:16.740 --> 00:11:20.220 office, Pontifex Maximus. And this was shocking 00:11:20.220 --> 00:11:23.399 to Rome. He surprisingly defeated two entrenched, 00:11:23.440 --> 00:11:26.799 highly influential senators, Catulus and Assyracus. 00:11:26.899 --> 00:11:28.779 How did a relatively junior figure pull that 00:11:28.779 --> 00:11:31.279 off? Well, it suggests he had either immense 00:11:31.279 --> 00:11:34.200 popular support or immense financial backing, 00:11:34.399 --> 00:11:37.590 or probably both. Ancient sources definitely 00:11:37.590 --> 00:11:40.190 allege massive bribery, possibly underwritten 00:11:40.190 --> 00:11:43.549 by Crassus or Pompey. But whether it was bribery 00:11:43.549 --> 00:11:46.350 or popular appeal, the victory marked him as 00:11:46.350 --> 00:11:49.409 an unstoppable political force. It showed he 00:11:49.409 --> 00:11:52.149 was capable of beating the established senatorial 00:11:52.149 --> 00:11:54.789 elite at their own game. And that same year, 00:11:54.929 --> 00:11:58.269 63 BC, saw the famous Catilinarian Conspiracy. 00:11:58.610 --> 00:12:02.090 The Senate is debating the fate of arrested conspirators 00:12:02.090 --> 00:12:05.279 caught plotting rebellion. And as Praetor elect, 00:12:05.559 --> 00:12:07.779 Caesar speaks out against the immediate execution 00:12:07.779 --> 00:12:10.799 of citizens without trial. This was a crucial 00:12:10.799 --> 00:12:12.860 constitutional moment that really defined his 00:12:12.860 --> 00:12:14.940 political stance. What was the core issue here? 00:12:15.179 --> 00:12:17.980 It was all about the Lex Sempronia De Capitae 00:12:17.980 --> 00:12:20.840 Civis, which guaranteed Roman citizens the right 00:12:20.840 --> 00:12:23.539 to appeal capital punishment to the people. The 00:12:23.539 --> 00:12:26.019 hardliners, led by Cato, wanted immediate execution 00:12:26.019 --> 00:12:28.759 under the Senate's Senatus Consultum Ultimum, 00:12:28.799 --> 00:12:31.529 the final decree. They claimed the conspirators 00:12:31.529 --> 00:12:33.529 had forfeited their citizenship rights. Right. 00:12:33.690 --> 00:12:35.830 But Caesar's position was brilliantly clever. 00:12:36.029 --> 00:12:38.950 He advocated for a compromise. Perpetual life 00:12:38.950 --> 00:12:42.090 imprisonment, possibly pending trial, coupled 00:12:42.090 --> 00:12:43.970 with the confiscation of all their property. 00:12:44.389 --> 00:12:47.769 It was harsh, but it avoided violating the constitutional 00:12:47.769 --> 00:12:50.409 right of appeal for citizens. So he wasn't just 00:12:50.409 --> 00:12:53.090 being merciful. Not at all. He was positioning 00:12:53.090 --> 00:12:56.269 himself as the true principal defender of Roman 00:12:56.269 --> 00:12:59.049 libertas and constitutional tradition against 00:12:59.049 --> 00:13:02.370 what he framed as the desperate, illegal overreach 00:13:02.370 --> 00:13:04.990 of the conservative Senate. And that stance secured 00:13:04.990 --> 00:13:08.809 him deep, long -term popular loyalty. It did. 00:13:09.029 --> 00:13:11.610 Though ultimately, Cato's impassioned speech 00:13:11.610 --> 00:13:13.830 swayed the Senate toward immediate execution. 00:13:14.250 --> 00:13:17.340 Caesar failed on the immediate vote. But he absolutely 00:13:17.340 --> 00:13:19.799 won the long -term popular loyalty battle. His 00:13:19.799 --> 00:13:22.940 subsequent year as praetor in 62 BC saw further 00:13:22.940 --> 00:13:25.440 aggressive maneuvering. Yes, including an attempt 00:13:25.440 --> 00:13:27.500 to strip Cachelus of the honor of completing 00:13:27.500 --> 00:13:30.200 the rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus 00:13:30.200 --> 00:13:33.200 and assign the task to Pompey instead. That proposal 00:13:33.200 --> 00:13:35.299 quickly dissolved, though, showing he had his 00:13:35.299 --> 00:13:37.360 limits. But then he gets involved in the famous 00:13:37.360 --> 00:13:40.820 Bonadea affair. Ah, yes, where Publius Clodius 00:13:40.820 --> 00:13:43.360 Pulpter snuck into Caesar's house during a sacred 00:13:43.360 --> 00:13:45.840 female religious observance. The religious... 00:13:45.870 --> 00:13:49.490 sacrilege was massive. And Caesar, despite testifying 00:13:49.490 --> 00:13:52.350 that he knew nothing of Clodius' actions, immediately 00:13:52.350 --> 00:13:55.429 divorced his wife, Pompeia. Right, claiming that 00:13:55.429 --> 00:13:58.549 Caesar's wife needed to be above suspicion. That 00:13:58.549 --> 00:14:00.950 famous line demonstrated his commitment to his 00:14:00.950 --> 00:14:03.850 public image over any private feelings. He turned 00:14:03.850 --> 00:14:06.330 a personal scandal into a demonstration of Roman 00:14:06.330 --> 00:14:09.110 gravitas. So after his praetorship, Caesar is 00:14:09.110 --> 00:14:12.259 deeply in debt from his lavish campaigns. which 00:14:12.259 --> 00:14:15.080 sets the stage for his governorship of Hispania 00:14:15.080 --> 00:14:18.139 Ulterior. He needed a military victory and, more 00:14:18.139 --> 00:14:20.259 importantly, plunder to pay off those debts. 00:14:20.399 --> 00:14:23.360 And he got it. He campaigned successfully against 00:14:23.360 --> 00:14:25.919 the Calaci and Lusitani, seized enough plunder 00:14:25.919 --> 00:14:28.240 to pay his creditors, and was hailed imperator 00:14:28.240 --> 00:14:30.740 by his troops. So when he returns to Rome in 00:14:30.740 --> 00:14:33.840 the summer of 60 BC, He faces this critical choice 00:14:33.840 --> 00:14:36.679 forced on him by his senatorial enemies, particularly 00:14:36.679 --> 00:14:39.340 Cato. The choice between a triumph and the consulship. 00:14:39.480 --> 00:14:41.840 Exactly. He had to remain outside Rome's sacred 00:14:41.840 --> 00:14:44.519 boundary, the Pomerium, to await a triumph or 00:14:44.519 --> 00:14:46.559 cross it, forfeit the triumph in his command 00:14:46.559 --> 00:14:49.019 to declare his candidacy for the consulship in 00:14:49.019 --> 00:14:51.799 person. And Cato successfully filibustered any 00:14:51.799 --> 00:14:54.539 attempt to waive that requirement. Caesar's decision 00:14:54.539 --> 00:14:57.620 here is key to understanding his ambition. He 00:14:57.620 --> 00:15:00.480 chose the consulship. He valued ultimate political 00:15:00.480 --> 00:15:03.539 power and executive command over immediate symbolic 00:15:03.539 --> 00:15:06.860 military glory. That signaled to everyone that 00:15:06.860 --> 00:15:08.879 his sights were set on long -term domination, 00:15:09.220 --> 00:15:11.600 not just temporary accolades. And the path to 00:15:11.600 --> 00:15:13.700 that consulship was defined by the political 00:15:13.700 --> 00:15:16.919 masterstroke of the First Triumvirate, this informal 00:15:16.919 --> 00:15:20.240 extra -legal alliance between Caesar, Pompey, 00:15:20.240 --> 00:15:22.779 and Crassus. It was purely transactional, wasn't 00:15:22.779 --> 00:15:25.519 it? Yeah. Driven by mutual unmet goals. That's 00:15:25.519 --> 00:15:27.539 the core of it. The constitutional system had 00:15:27.539 --> 00:15:29.840 become so gridlocked that the three most powerful 00:15:29.840 --> 00:15:33.419 men in Rome, a military hero, a financial titan, 00:15:33.419 --> 00:15:36.700 and a rising political star, had to form a private 00:15:36.700 --> 00:15:40.019 compact just to get anything done. Pompey urgently 00:15:40.019 --> 00:15:42.539 needed the Senate to ratify his eastern settlements 00:15:42.539 --> 00:15:44.879 and grant land to his veterans. Which the Senate 00:15:44.879 --> 00:15:47.679 had blocked for years out of, well, petty jealousy. 00:15:48.649 --> 00:15:50.909 And Crassus needed financial relief, specifically 00:15:50.909 --> 00:15:53.210 a massive write -down for the tax farmers in 00:15:53.210 --> 00:15:55.350 the province of Asia. And Caesar, the junior 00:15:55.350 --> 00:15:57.509 partner in all this. He needed their combined 00:15:57.509 --> 00:16:00.289 financial and military weight to ensure he won 00:16:00.289 --> 00:16:03.110 the consulship, and crucially to secure a long 00:16:03.110 --> 00:16:06.029 -term extended military command after his consulship 00:16:06.029 --> 00:16:08.730 ended. That would guarantee him immunity from 00:16:08.730 --> 00:16:10.870 prosecution and give him a chance for more glory. 00:16:11.600 --> 00:16:13.799 So the triumvirate was the ultimate manifestation 00:16:13.799 --> 00:16:16.580 of the Republic's breakdown. It really was. With 00:16:16.580 --> 00:16:18.639 their support, Caesar wins the consulship for 00:16:18.639 --> 00:16:22.779 59 BC. But the Senate ensures his co -consul 00:16:22.779 --> 00:16:25.820 will be his long -standing bitter enemy, Marcus 00:16:25.820 --> 00:16:28.840 Calpurnius Bibulus. Bibulus was elected purely 00:16:28.840 --> 00:16:31.389 to obstruct everything Caesar tried to do. But 00:16:31.389 --> 00:16:33.809 Caesar starts his consulship with the Revolutionary 00:16:33.809 --> 00:16:36.450 Act. He immediately begins publishing the Minutes 00:16:36.450 --> 00:16:39.049 of the Senate and the Assemblies, a novel move 00:16:39.049 --> 00:16:41.809 signaling accountability to the public. But more 00:16:41.809 --> 00:16:44.210 importantly, forcing the Senate to conduct its 00:16:44.210 --> 00:16:46.909 obstructionist business under the public gaze. 00:16:47.149 --> 00:16:50.169 His legislative agenda was centered on land reform, 00:16:50.509 --> 00:16:52.970 designed to distribute land to Pompeii's veterans 00:16:52.970 --> 00:16:55.389 and the urban poor. He first brought it to the 00:16:55.389 --> 00:16:57.049 Senate. Hoping they would accept the inevitable, 00:16:57.250 --> 00:17:00.389 but the obstruction was absolute. Cato filibustered 00:17:00.389 --> 00:17:02.850 the bill, speaking relentlessly until the sunset 00:17:02.850 --> 00:17:06.150 and the Senate had to adjourn. So Caesar, seeing 00:17:06.150 --> 00:17:08.150 the impossibility of working within the traditional 00:17:08.150 --> 00:17:11.369 structure, moved the bill directly before the 00:17:11.369 --> 00:17:13.750 popular assembly. And here is where the constitutional 00:17:13.750 --> 00:17:18.190 crisis truly boiled over. Bibulus attempted a 00:17:18.190 --> 00:17:20.910 permanent veto for the entire year. based on 00:17:20.910 --> 00:17:23.269 announcing unfavorable auspices. Which was seen 00:17:23.269 --> 00:17:25.849 as a profound violation of the people's legislative 00:17:25.849 --> 00:17:29.210 sovereignty. A massive riot erupted in the forum. 00:17:29.730 --> 00:17:32.349 Bibulus' fasces, the symbols of his authority, 00:17:32.529 --> 00:17:35.250 were broken. Witnesses claimed he was pelted 00:17:35.250 --> 00:17:38.269 with excrement. He was forced to flee. And the 00:17:38.269 --> 00:17:41.029 land bill was passed. Caesar capitalized immediately, 00:17:41.390 --> 00:17:44.170 passing Crassus' tax write -down and the ratification 00:17:44.170 --> 00:17:47.069 of Pompey's eastern settlements. Following these 00:17:47.069 --> 00:17:50.109 humiliating defeats, Bibulus just withdrew entirely. 00:17:50.450 --> 00:17:52.430 He secluded himself in his home for the rest 00:17:52.430 --> 00:17:55.029 of the year, issuing these edicts in absentia, 00:17:55.029 --> 00:17:57.049 trying to cancel all voting days for religious 00:17:57.049 --> 00:17:59.650 reasons. Which failed to stop Caesar's legislative 00:17:59.650 --> 00:18:02.930 agenda, but it created this image of total autocratic 00:18:02.930 --> 00:18:05.069 control. Which, of course, led to the famous 00:18:05.069 --> 00:18:07.569 political barb that it wasn't the consulship 00:18:07.569 --> 00:18:10.190 of Bibulus and Caesar, but the consulship of 00:18:10.190 --> 00:18:13.240 Julius and Caesar. And what that joke tells us 00:18:13.240 --> 00:18:16.119 is that the core principle of Roman constitutionalism 00:18:16.119 --> 00:18:19.279 collegiality, the idea that power must be shared, 00:18:19.480 --> 00:18:22.980 was already dead. Bibulus' voluntary withdrawal 00:18:22.980 --> 00:18:27.039 created a de facto sole magistracy, a temporary 00:18:27.039 --> 00:18:31.589 monarchy. But the political elite saw a terrifying 00:18:31.589 --> 00:18:34.269 preview of the future. A republic where one man 00:18:34.269 --> 00:18:36.650 could dominate all legislative and executive 00:18:36.650 --> 00:18:39.769 functions simply by force and popular support. 00:18:40.009 --> 00:18:42.509 Caesar then secured his long -term goal. The 00:18:42.509 --> 00:18:44.829 Lex Vitini assigned the provinces of Alericum 00:18:44.829 --> 00:18:47.329 and Cisalpine Gaul to him for five years. And 00:18:47.329 --> 00:18:49.410 the Senate, probably just wanting to get him 00:18:49.410 --> 00:18:52.069 out of Rome, reluctantly added Transalpine Gaul. 00:18:52.410 --> 00:18:54.190 With that extended military command secured, 00:18:54.490 --> 00:18:57.109 the alliance was sealed when Pompey married Caesar's 00:18:57.109 --> 00:18:59.809 only legitimate child, his daughter Julia. And 00:18:59.809 --> 00:19:02.250 Caesar left for Gaul, embarking on the campaigns 00:19:02.250 --> 00:19:04.470 that would transform his reputation, his fortune, 00:19:04.609 --> 00:19:08.089 and Rome itself. So the Gallic Wars between 58 00:19:08.089 --> 00:19:11.160 and 51 BC, this was a massive undertaking. It 00:19:11.160 --> 00:19:14.539 was. It greatly extended Roman territory up to 00:19:14.539 --> 00:19:17.480 the Rhine and transformed Caesar into Rome's 00:19:17.480 --> 00:19:20.339 foremost military commander. How did he manage 00:19:20.339 --> 00:19:23.000 this conquest? It was a huge area with many different 00:19:23.000 --> 00:19:26.460 peoples. He employed classic Roman military superiority, 00:19:26.779 --> 00:19:29.720 of course, but his greatest political asset was 00:19:29.720 --> 00:19:32.200 exploiting the deep -seated internal divisions 00:19:32.200 --> 00:19:35.279 among the numerous Gallic tribes. They were not 00:19:35.279 --> 00:19:38.079 a unified bloc. They were constantly warring, 00:19:38.079 --> 00:19:40.299 and Caesar skillfully manipulated those rivals. 00:19:40.329 --> 00:19:42.349 Playing them off against each other. Exactly. 00:19:42.410 --> 00:19:44.509 Signing treaties, supporting favored leaders, 00:19:44.650 --> 00:19:46.950 and then crushing those who opposed him. Let's 00:19:46.950 --> 00:19:49.210 highlight some of the key military feats, the 00:19:49.210 --> 00:19:52.609 aha moments of his campaign that really showcase 00:19:52.609 --> 00:19:56.109 Roman power. Well, the two most famous are probably 00:19:56.109 --> 00:20:00.210 the bridge across the river Rhine and the expeditions 00:20:00.210 --> 00:20:02.710 into Britain. The Rhine Bridge was a huge feat 00:20:02.710 --> 00:20:04.859 of engineering, wasn't it? It was, and it wasn't 00:20:04.859 --> 00:20:06.839 meant to be permanent. It was built in just 10 00:20:06.839 --> 00:20:09.240 days, and its purpose was pure power projection. 00:20:09.559 --> 00:20:12.099 It showed that Rome could go wherever it pleased. 00:20:12.380 --> 00:20:14.599 It was military theater of the highest order. 00:20:14.799 --> 00:20:17.980 Then he dismantled it and returned. And his two 00:20:17.980 --> 00:20:21.119 expeditions into southern Britain in 55 and 54 00:20:21.119 --> 00:20:25.380 BC. To the Romans, Britain was almost a mythical 00:20:25.380 --> 00:20:28.390 land. It was. It was seen as the island of mystery, 00:20:28.569 --> 00:20:32.349 a land of wonder. So invading it, even if briefly 00:20:32.349 --> 00:20:34.930 and without lasting conquest, provided spectacular 00:20:34.930 --> 00:20:37.730 material for his dispatches back home. It buttressed 00:20:37.730 --> 00:20:40.670 his military reputation and distracted from political 00:20:40.670 --> 00:20:43.390 troubles in Rome. Pure political messaging wrapped 00:20:43.390 --> 00:20:46.109 in military activity. The core conflict, though, 00:20:46.150 --> 00:20:48.269 came with a massive uprising of central Gaul, 00:20:48.430 --> 00:20:51.470 led by Vercingetorix of the Averni. And Caesar 00:20:51.470 --> 00:20:53.930 actually suffered a rare defeat at Gergovia. 00:20:54.240 --> 00:20:57.119 Gergovia was a significant setback. It forced 00:20:57.119 --> 00:20:59.619 Caesar to confront the true power of a unified 00:20:59.619 --> 00:21:02.180 Gallic resistance, but he rebounded quickly at 00:21:02.180 --> 00:21:04.500 the critical siege of Alesia. Which was an engineering 00:21:04.500 --> 00:21:07.460 masterpiece. He built two massive lines of fortification. 00:21:07.740 --> 00:21:10.359 One inward to keep the city besieged and one 00:21:10.359 --> 00:21:12.539 outward to defend against the arriving Gallic 00:21:12.539 --> 00:21:15.140 relief army. It was a siege within a siege. An 00:21:15.140 --> 00:21:17.519 incredible gamble. And it paid off. The decisive 00:21:17.519 --> 00:21:19.779 victory over Vercingetorix at Alesia concluded 00:21:19.779 --> 00:21:22.240 the major phase of the war and cemented Roman 00:21:22.240 --> 00:21:25.440 control over a vast new territory. And the entire 00:21:25.440 --> 00:21:28.299 time, Caesar was controlling the political narrative 00:21:28.299 --> 00:21:31.279 back home through his annual dispatches, his 00:21:31.279 --> 00:21:34.480 Commentarii de Bello Gallico. We called it polished 00:21:34.480 --> 00:21:36.920 propaganda, and that's exactly what it was. The 00:21:36.920 --> 00:21:39.319 commentary are acknowledged as a Latin literary 00:21:39.319 --> 00:21:42.579 masterwork for their clear, direct third person 00:21:42.579 --> 00:21:45.059 style, which makes everything feel so objective. 00:21:45.359 --> 00:21:47.440 But the manipulation is subtle and constant. 00:21:47.619 --> 00:21:50.119 Yes. First, they were published annually. So 00:21:50.119 --> 00:21:52.319 Caesar dominated the news cycle and maintained 00:21:52.319 --> 00:21:55.720 support for his distant wars. Second, they consistently 00:21:55.720 --> 00:21:59.680 magnified his victories and minimized his atrocities. 00:21:59.880 --> 00:22:02.140 Can you give a specific example of the spin? 00:22:02.779 --> 00:22:05.660 Look at Gergovia. He presents the defeat not 00:22:05.660 --> 00:22:08.339 as a failure of his strategy, but as a failure 00:22:08.339 --> 00:22:11.059 of his impatient, overzealous troops who disobeyed 00:22:11.059 --> 00:22:14.319 orders. He frames himself as the rational, cautious 00:22:14.319 --> 00:22:17.200 general whose plans were undermined by the impulsiveness 00:22:17.200 --> 00:22:19.900 of his men. It's never his fault. Never. The 00:22:19.900 --> 00:22:22.420 commentary also served to dehumanize the Gauls, 00:22:22.460 --> 00:22:24.579 portraying them as barbaric and inherently prone 00:22:24.579 --> 00:22:26.980 to treachery, which then justifies the brutality 00:22:26.980 --> 00:22:29.720 of the conquests to his Roman audience. Meanwhile. 00:22:30.140 --> 00:22:32.759 The political situation in Rome was deteriorating. 00:22:32.859 --> 00:22:35.460 The triumvirate was struggling. It was fragile. 00:22:35.740 --> 00:22:38.259 Clodius' actions against Pompey forced Caesar 00:22:38.259 --> 00:22:41.400 to renew the alliance in 56 BC, granting himself 00:22:41.400 --> 00:22:44.259 another five -year extension of command. But 00:22:44.259 --> 00:22:47.420 the personal bonds were breaking. In 54 BC... 00:22:47.559 --> 00:22:50.880 Julia, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter, died 00:22:50.880 --> 00:22:53.279 in childbirth. Which removed the primary personal 00:22:53.279 --> 00:22:56.019 link between the two men. Then came the crushing 00:22:56.019 --> 00:22:58.680 death of Crassus at the Battle of Cari in 53 00:22:58.680 --> 00:23:01.099 BC. Where he lost the Roman standards and his 00:23:01.099 --> 00:23:03.900 entire army. And that removed the final mediator 00:23:03.900 --> 00:23:06.920 and financial counterbalance. It left Pompey, 00:23:06.920 --> 00:23:08.779 now politically allied with the conservative 00:23:08.779 --> 00:23:12.099 Senate, and Caesar as the two sole giants destined 00:23:12.099 --> 00:23:14.579 for confrontation. Following his final victory 00:23:14.579 --> 00:23:17.619 at Alesia in 52 BC, Caesar was showered with 00:23:17.619 --> 00:23:20.240 honors. An unprecedented 20 days of thanksgiving, 00:23:20.420 --> 00:23:22.660 and the Senate grudgingly passed the Law of the 00:23:22.660 --> 00:23:25.039 Ten Tribunes, allowing him to stand for the consulship 00:23:25.039 --> 00:23:27.599 in absentia. But the hardline Senate led by Cato 00:23:27.599 --> 00:23:30.400 and Bibulus was desperate. They feared his return 00:23:30.400 --> 00:23:33.819 with an army and sought to enlist Pompey to force 00:23:33.819 --> 00:23:36.339 Caesar to return to Rome without honors or command, 00:23:36.599 --> 00:23:39.579 stripping him of his pro -consular immunity and 00:23:39.579 --> 00:23:42.640 leaving him vulnerable to prosecution. That fear 00:23:42.640 --> 00:23:45.420 of prosecution, conviction, and exile is often 00:23:45.420 --> 00:23:48.599 cited as the primary reason why Caesar eventually 00:23:48.599 --> 00:23:51.000 marched on Rome. That's certainly part of it, 00:23:51.019 --> 00:23:53.539 but we have to look deeper. The core of his motivation, 00:23:53.700 --> 00:23:55.759 drawn from his own writings, was the defense 00:23:55.759 --> 00:23:58.720 of his dignitas, his personal honor and reputation, 00:23:59.079 --> 00:24:02.359 and securing his second consulship. He feared 00:24:02.359 --> 00:24:04.700 his opponents would use legal maneuvers or outright 00:24:04.700 --> 00:24:07.279 force to prevent the Roman people from electing 00:24:07.279 --> 00:24:09.680 him. Exactly. And the expulsion of his supportive 00:24:09.680 --> 00:24:13.319 tribunes from Rome on January 7, 49 BC, was the 00:24:13.319 --> 00:24:16.140 confirmation of that fear. It was the final straw. 00:24:16.420 --> 00:24:18.940 When his final offer to disarm alongside Pompey 00:24:18.940 --> 00:24:20.950 was rejected, rejected by the hardliners, the 00:24:20.950 --> 00:24:23.769 Senate issued the Senatus Consultum Ultima. The 00:24:23.769 --> 00:24:26.309 final decree declaring him an enemy of the state. 00:24:26.490 --> 00:24:28.690 This was the point of no return. Around January 00:24:28.690 --> 00:24:32.589 10 or 11, 49 BC, Caesar openly defied the Republic 00:24:32.589 --> 00:24:35.009 by crossing the Rubicon. The small river defining 00:24:35.009 --> 00:24:38.190 the northern border of Italy. With a single legion, 00:24:38.210 --> 00:24:40.930 the Legio XIII Gemina. And that's where we get 00:24:40.930 --> 00:24:44.829 the iconic lion, Aelia Iacta Est. Let the die 00:24:44.829 --> 00:24:48.609 be cast. The Civil War had begun. Pompey and 00:24:48.609 --> 00:24:51.109 many senators, shocked by the speed of his advance, 00:24:51.390 --> 00:24:54.130 fled south, abandoning Italy. They eventually 00:24:54.130 --> 00:24:56.930 escaped to Greece. Caesar quickly secured Rome, 00:24:57.029 --> 00:24:59.609 but his actions immediately undercut his stated 00:24:59.609 --> 00:25:02.630 justification for the war. How so? Well, he had 00:25:02.630 --> 00:25:04.730 claimed to be marching to protect the liberty 00:25:04.730 --> 00:25:07.549 and rights of the tribunes. Yet, shortly after 00:25:07.549 --> 00:25:10.930 reaching Rome, he needed funds. And when a tribune 00:25:10.930 --> 00:25:13.130 vetoed his attempt to access the state treasury, 00:25:13.369 --> 00:25:16.190 Caesar simply brushed the veto aside and seized 00:25:16.190 --> 00:25:18.990 the money by force. So the very position he claimed 00:25:18.990 --> 00:25:21.329 to be defending, he immediately ignored when 00:25:21.329 --> 00:25:23.250 it was inconvenient. It exposed the fundamental 00:25:23.250 --> 00:25:25.509 hypocrisy that this war was ultimately about 00:25:25.509 --> 00:25:28.109 personal power, not constitutional principle. 00:25:28.369 --> 00:25:31.289 Caesar resigned his brief, constitutionally questionable 00:25:31.289 --> 00:25:34.509 dictatorship and then left for Greece. After 00:25:34.509 --> 00:25:36.990 a tactical defeat at Dyrrhachium, the decisive 00:25:36.990 --> 00:25:39.329 moment came at the Battle of Pharsalus in August 00:25:39.329 --> 00:25:43.390 48 BC. Where Caesar overwhelmingly defeated Pompey, 00:25:43.410 --> 00:25:46.950 Pompey fled to Egypt while Cato fled to Africa 00:25:46.950 --> 00:25:49.829 to organize the ongoing resistance. And many 00:25:49.829 --> 00:25:52.390 prominent Republican figures like Cicero and 00:25:52.390 --> 00:25:55.349 Marcus Junius Brutus sought and received Caesar's 00:25:55.349 --> 00:25:59.470 policy of clemency. Clemency or mercy. He cultivated 00:25:59.470 --> 00:26:02.410 this to contrast his rule with Sulla's vengeful 00:26:02.410 --> 00:26:05.490 dictatorship. Pompey expected refuge in Alexandria, 00:26:05.849 --> 00:26:08.309 but was immediately assassinated upon arrival 00:26:08.309 --> 00:26:10.849 by agents of the child pharaoh, Ptolemy III. 00:26:11.130 --> 00:26:13.869 Right. Caesar landed three days later, expecting 00:26:13.869 --> 00:26:16.470 to pursue his rival, but instead found himself 00:26:16.470 --> 00:26:18.829 caught up in the local politics. He was presented 00:26:18.829 --> 00:26:21.660 with Pompey's head. And he reportedly wept. Not 00:26:21.660 --> 00:26:23.740 out of respect for his former son -in -law, but 00:26:23.740 --> 00:26:25.779 out of disgust at the barbarity of the act against 00:26:25.779 --> 00:26:28.599 a fellow Roman consul. Due to the winds, he was 00:26:28.599 --> 00:26:30.599 stuck in the city and decided to arbitrate the 00:26:30.599 --> 00:26:33.359 civil war between Ptolemy III and his sister 00:26:33.359 --> 00:26:36.480 -wife, Cleopatra VII. This quickly evolved to 00:26:36.480 --> 00:26:39.519 the Alexandrine War. He installed Cleopatra as 00:26:39.519 --> 00:26:41.940 ruler and began a famous affair with her. And 00:26:41.940 --> 00:26:44.140 this is where we get the major political complication. 00:26:45.220 --> 00:26:48.019 Cleopatra gave birth to Caesar's son, Caesarion. 00:26:48.940 --> 00:26:51.440 Though unacknowledged by Caesar in Rome, his 00:26:51.440 --> 00:26:53.980 existence cemented the crucial political alliance 00:26:53.980 --> 00:26:56.839 between Rome and Egypt. And Caesar stayed in 00:26:56.839 --> 00:26:59.720 Egypt far longer than was militarily necessary. 00:27:00.180 --> 00:27:03.880 He did, until mid -July 47 BC, which suggests 00:27:03.880 --> 00:27:06.819 this was not merely a military occupation, but 00:27:06.819 --> 00:27:09.039 a political and personal entrenchment. After 00:27:09.039 --> 00:27:11.480 finally leaving Egypt, Caesar swiftly dealt with 00:27:11.480 --> 00:27:13.920 a threat in Asia Minor, defeating King Pharnaces. 00:27:14.240 --> 00:27:16.059 And this is where we get the most famous and 00:27:16.059 --> 00:27:21.130 concise of his military reports. I came, I saw, 00:27:21.210 --> 00:27:23.609 I conquered. It's a brilliant piece of propaganda. 00:27:24.009 --> 00:27:26.329 It highlights the speed and inevitability of 00:27:26.329 --> 00:27:28.490 his victory, cementing his image as an almost 00:27:28.490 --> 00:27:31.970 divine commander. Meanwhile, back in Rome, Mark 00:27:31.970 --> 00:27:34.589 Antony, whom Caesar had left in charge as Magister 00:27:34.589 --> 00:27:36.990 Equitum, was making a terrible mess. His rule 00:27:36.990 --> 00:27:39.049 was marked by suppressing debt relief riots with 00:27:39.049 --> 00:27:41.549 lethal force, severely damaging the popularity 00:27:41.549 --> 00:27:44.349 of Caesar's cause in Rome. So Caesar was forced 00:27:44.349 --> 00:27:47.289 to demote him upon his return. Yes. Caesar then 00:27:47.289 --> 00:27:49.470 turned his attention to crushing the remaining 00:27:49.470 --> 00:27:52.650 Republican resistance. Cato and Metellus Scipio 00:27:52.650 --> 00:27:55.170 had gathered forces in Africa, allied with King 00:27:55.170 --> 00:27:57.490 Juba of Numidia. The campaign was difficult, 00:27:57.650 --> 00:28:00.349 but Caesar regrouped and decisively defeated 00:28:00.349 --> 00:28:03.549 them at the Battle of Thapsus in April 46 BC. 00:28:03.890 --> 00:28:06.089 And following that defeat, we have the indelible 00:28:06.089 --> 00:28:09.460 image of Cato. He commanded at Utica and chose 00:28:09.460 --> 00:28:12.019 to commit suicide rather than accept Caesar's 00:28:12.019 --> 00:28:14.240 clemency. He turned himself into a powerful, 00:28:14.359 --> 00:28:16.660 permanent martyr for the lost republic. Absolutely. 00:28:16.900 --> 00:28:20.099 The final grueling showdown was at Munda in Spain 00:28:20.099 --> 00:28:23.440 in March 45 BC against Pompey's sons. It was 00:28:23.440 --> 00:28:25.799 a close run thing. Sources suggest Caesar was 00:28:25.799 --> 00:28:28.519 nearly defeated. But he won. And he treated his 00:28:28.519 --> 00:28:30.819 enemies as rebels, massacring them on the battlefield. 00:28:31.079 --> 00:28:32.960 The fact he was fighting Romans to the death 00:28:32.960 --> 00:28:35.680 for years showed how far the Republic had fallen. 00:28:35.819 --> 00:28:38.440 Upon his return, he celebrated four elaborate, 00:28:38.579 --> 00:28:41.059 magnificent triumphs, although nominally over 00:28:41.059 --> 00:28:44.000 foreign enemies. Gaul, Egypt, Asia, and Juba. 00:28:44.329 --> 00:28:46.529 The celebrations were deeply divisive. Appian 00:28:46.529 --> 00:28:48.930 noted that Caesar paraded images and models that 00:28:48.930 --> 00:28:50.750 clearly referenced his victories over fellow 00:28:50.750 --> 00:28:53.930 Romans. It was seen as an unseemly triumph. It 00:28:53.930 --> 00:28:56.230 demonstrated his willingness to flout tradition, 00:28:56.470 --> 00:28:59.190 to reinforce his personal victory over the Roman 00:28:59.190 --> 00:29:01.490 elite. By this point, he was already planning 00:29:01.490 --> 00:29:04.349 a massive three -year campaign against the Parthians, 00:29:04.569 --> 00:29:07.130 but his political structure at home was already 00:29:07.130 --> 00:29:09.410 alienating the class he needed to govern with. 00:29:09.630 --> 00:29:11.950 Which brings us to the nature of his dictatorship. 00:29:13.069 --> 00:29:15.569 Caesar had held the title of dictator multiple 00:29:15.569 --> 00:29:18.750 times since 49 BC. But the fundamental change 00:29:18.750 --> 00:29:22.369 came in early February 44 BC when he assumed 00:29:22.369 --> 00:29:25.670 the title of dictator perpetuo. Dictator for 00:29:25.670 --> 00:29:28.299 life. This was the nail in the coffin for the 00:29:28.299 --> 00:29:30.700 Republic. It immediately ended all hope that 00:29:30.700 --> 00:29:32.779 the traditional constitution could ever be restored 00:29:32.779 --> 00:29:35.539 as long as Caesar lived. And you have to differentiate 00:29:35.539 --> 00:29:37.839 this from the traditional Roman dictatorship. 00:29:38.240 --> 00:29:40.700 Which was a temporary six -month emergency office. 00:29:40.900 --> 00:29:43.640 Exactly. By accepting the dictatorship for life, 00:29:43.839 --> 00:29:46.559 Caesar wasn't just maximizing his power. He was 00:29:46.559 --> 00:29:49.119 fundamentally abolishing the foundational constitutional 00:29:49.119 --> 00:29:52.059 checks that define the Republic. He made himself 00:29:52.059 --> 00:29:55.140 a king in all but name. And the Senate. filled 00:29:55.140 --> 00:29:57.500 with his supporters, then proceeded to shower 00:29:57.500 --> 00:29:59.700 him with honors that moved well beyond Republican 00:29:59.700 --> 00:30:02.700 practice and into the realm of divine monarchy. 00:30:02.819 --> 00:30:06.190 The symbols were overt. He was granted the unique 00:30:06.190 --> 00:30:08.670 right to have his portrait placed on coins in 00:30:08.670 --> 00:30:11.069 Rome while he was still living a first for a 00:30:11.069 --> 00:30:14.269 Roman. He was granted overtly royal dress, the 00:30:14.269 --> 00:30:16.829 right to wear the laurel wreath at all times. 00:30:16.990 --> 00:30:19.509 And the ability to sit atop a golden chair in 00:30:19.509 --> 00:30:22.049 the Senate. They even renamed the month Quintilis 00:30:22.049 --> 00:30:25.920 to Julius or July in his honor. all highly visible 00:30:25.920 --> 00:30:28.559 symbols designed to project monarchical power. 00:30:28.779 --> 00:30:31.380 And it was these symbols, perhaps more than his 00:30:31.380 --> 00:30:34.380 actual legislation, that fueled the growing resentment. 00:30:34.579 --> 00:30:37.500 Absolutely. The political class valued dignitas 00:30:37.500 --> 00:30:40.630 and libertas. Dignity and freedom and the idea 00:30:40.630 --> 00:30:43.089 that one man could so totally dominate the public 00:30:43.089 --> 00:30:46.130 sphere was intolerable. He was constantly ignoring 00:30:46.130 --> 00:30:48.329 or overriding the traditional institutions of 00:30:48.329 --> 00:30:50.690 the republic. Yet despite the autocratic power 00:30:50.690 --> 00:30:53.690 grab, he ran a surprisingly vigorous and effective 00:30:53.690 --> 00:30:56.549 reform program. He did. The most enduring structural 00:30:56.549 --> 00:30:58.730 achievement is, of course, the Julian calendar. 00:30:58.890 --> 00:31:02.049 Which abolished the messy, chaotic, old lunisolar 00:31:02.049 --> 00:31:04.829 calendar. And replaced it with a solar calendar 00:31:04.829 --> 00:31:07.529 accurate to the civil year. This wasn't just 00:31:07.529 --> 00:31:10.150 a technical fix. It was an essential administrative 00:31:10.150 --> 00:31:13.289 achievement for a growing empire. He also tackled 00:31:13.289 --> 00:31:15.650 administrative expansion, increasing the number 00:31:15.650 --> 00:31:18.009 of magistrates and the size of the Senate from 00:31:18.009 --> 00:31:21.170 600 to 900 members. And that sounds like a reform, 00:31:21.369 --> 00:31:24.039 but it served two purposes. First, it rewarded 00:31:24.039 --> 00:31:27.180 his numerous supporters. Second, and more subtly, 00:31:27.279 --> 00:31:30.039 it made the Senate incapable of operating properly. 00:31:30.279 --> 00:31:34.180 A Senate of 900 is a sprawling, diluted body, 00:31:34.299 --> 00:31:37.440 easily ignored. He also addressed Rome's massive 00:31:37.440 --> 00:31:40.019 population problem and veteran issues. Yes, he 00:31:40.019 --> 00:31:42.799 reduced Rome's population by founding new overseas 00:31:42.799 --> 00:31:45.339 colonies, settling veterans and the urban poor, 00:31:45.559 --> 00:31:48.140 famously on the formerly destroyed sites of Carthage 00:31:48.140 --> 00:31:50.660 and Corinth. And he tackled the Grand Ole. He 00:31:50.660 --> 00:31:53.920 reduced its size from 320 ,000 recipients to 00:31:53.920 --> 00:31:56.380 about 150 ,000 by tightening qualifications. 00:31:56.960 --> 00:31:59.779 More sustainable, but unpopular with those who 00:31:59.779 --> 00:32:02.039 were cut off. And his policy of clemency was 00:32:02.039 --> 00:32:04.539 paired with political heavy -handedness, particularly 00:32:04.539 --> 00:32:07.519 how he handle the consulship. Yes, his continuous 00:32:07.519 --> 00:32:10.799 focus was on rewarding loyalty. He would resign 00:32:10.799 --> 00:32:12.700 his consulship so his allies could immediately 00:32:12.700 --> 00:32:15.059 take it up for the rest of the year. In one famous 00:32:15.059 --> 00:32:17.859 instance, he had an ally elected consul for a 00:32:17.859 --> 00:32:20.660 single day. Which reinforces the sense among 00:32:20.660 --> 00:32:23.960 the elite that all honors, all offices and statuses 00:32:23.960 --> 00:32:26.680 were merely personal favors bestowed by the dictator. 00:32:26.940 --> 00:32:29.640 It rendered their aristocratic careers meaningless. 00:32:30.099 --> 00:32:32.680 And this brings us to the seeds of tyranny. leading 00:32:32.680 --> 00:32:36.079 directly to the Ides of March. The dictator perpetuo 00:32:36.079 --> 00:32:38.460 title was one thing, but the attempts to call 00:32:38.460 --> 00:32:41.759 him Rex King were the final intolerable line. 00:32:41.960 --> 00:32:44.980 The term Rex was an absolute poison pill in Roman 00:32:44.980 --> 00:32:47.890 political culture, associated with... arbitrary 00:32:47.890 --> 00:32:50.609 inherited oppression when tribunes tried to shut 00:32:50.609 --> 00:32:52.349 down the attempts by the crowd to call caesar 00:32:52.349 --> 00:32:55.529 king caesar infuriated had the tribunes deposed 00:32:55.529 --> 00:32:58.089 and ejected from the senate a colossal political 00:32:58.089 --> 00:33:00.369 blunder it undermined the very justification 00:33:00.369 --> 00:33:02.809 he had used to start the civil war protecting 00:33:02.809 --> 00:33:05.509 the rights of tribunes and it angered the populace 00:33:05.509 --> 00:33:07.890 then came the famous lupercalia festival just 00:33:07.890 --> 00:33:10.970 days after he became dictator for life mark anthony 00:33:10.970 --> 00:33:13.490 publicly offered him a diadem the symbol of a 00:33:13.490 --> 00:33:16.380 hellenistic monarch Caesar publicly rejected 00:33:16.380 --> 00:33:19.160 it to the applause of the crowd, but the damage 00:33:19.160 --> 00:33:21.799 was done. Whether he rejected it out of principle 00:33:21.799 --> 00:33:24.079 or just because the crowd wasn't supportive enough 00:33:24.079 --> 00:33:26.380 is still debated. But the rumor that he sought 00:33:26.380 --> 00:33:29.759 a formal crown persisted. And the political reality 00:33:29.759 --> 00:33:31.900 was that he was already functioning as an effective 00:33:31.900 --> 00:33:34.779 monarch who had abolished open elections. That 00:33:34.779 --> 00:33:37.240 was the core constitutional motivation for the 00:33:37.240 --> 00:33:39.259 conspiracy. The composition of this conspiracy 00:33:39.259 --> 00:33:41.980 is fascinating. It wasn't just his defeated enemies. 00:33:42.200 --> 00:33:44.460 No, this is the critical insight. It included 00:33:44.460 --> 00:33:47.359 approximately 60 people, and many of them were 00:33:47.359 --> 00:33:50.539 his own loyal Caesarian supporters. Men like 00:33:50.539 --> 00:33:52.900 Decimus Brutus, who was his trusted general and 00:33:52.900 --> 00:33:55.799 even named an heir in his will. Their motivation 00:33:55.799 --> 00:33:58.960 was primarily constitutional. They feared he 00:33:58.960 --> 00:34:02.079 intended to make his rule hereditary and formalize 00:34:02.079 --> 00:34:04.259 the kingship. And they were angry over the effective 00:34:04.259 --> 00:34:07.380 abolition of meaningful elections, which stripped 00:34:07.380 --> 00:34:09.559 their careers of the dignity of free competition. 00:34:09.739 --> 00:34:12.420 They killed him not because they hated him personally, 00:34:12.579 --> 00:34:14.280 but because they believed the republic could 00:34:14.280 --> 00:34:17.360 not survive his living rule. Marcus Junius Brutus, 00:34:17.460 --> 00:34:20.059 who claimed dissent from the Brutus, who drove 00:34:20.059 --> 00:34:23.340 out the king's centuries earlier, was the ideological 00:34:23.340 --> 00:34:26.019 figurehead. And the sources report public graffiti 00:34:26.019 --> 00:34:28.780 challenging him, saying, you are no true Brutus 00:34:28.780 --> 00:34:32.320 if you tolerate a king. That kind of public pressure 00:34:32.320 --> 00:34:34.840 shows a genuine turn in opinion against Caesar's 00:34:34.840 --> 00:34:37.420 domination. The conspirators were forced to move 00:34:37.420 --> 00:34:40.539 fast because Caesar was scheduled to leave for 00:34:40.539 --> 00:34:43.519 his massive Parthian campaign on March 18th. 00:34:43.539 --> 00:34:45.260 So they had to act at the last Senate meeting 00:34:45.260 --> 00:34:48.719 before his departure, the Ides of March, March 00:34:48.719 --> 00:34:51.780 15th. The location was chosen for maximum symbolic 00:34:51.780 --> 00:34:54.820 impact. The Curia Pompeii at the foot of the 00:34:54.820 --> 00:34:57.239 statue of the man Caesar had defeated. The irony 00:34:57.239 --> 00:35:00.039 is brutal. Caesar refused a bodyguard, trusting 00:35:00.039 --> 00:35:02.320 in his clemency policy, and walked into the Senate. 00:35:02.579 --> 00:35:04.719 The conspirators approached him on his golden 00:35:04.719 --> 00:35:07.340 chair. And he was stabbed at least 23 times. 00:35:07.679 --> 00:35:09.900 The final dramatic question, of course, are his 00:35:09.900 --> 00:35:12.659 last words. Did he simply fall in silence, as 00:35:12.659 --> 00:35:14.900 Suetonius suggests? Or did he utter the alleged, 00:35:15.099 --> 00:35:17.929 you too, child? While the silence is historically 00:35:17.929 --> 00:35:20.550 more probable, the dramatic line highlights the 00:35:20.550 --> 00:35:23.630 personal betrayal, especially about Brutus. The 00:35:23.630 --> 00:35:26.530 result, regardless, was immediate chaos. The 00:35:26.530 --> 00:35:28.849 assassins fled to the Capitoline Hill, expecting 00:35:28.849 --> 00:35:31.409 to be hailed as liberators, but they were met 00:35:31.409 --> 00:35:34.489 with cold public silence. And this created a 00:35:34.489 --> 00:35:37.329 massive political vacuum that Mark Antony, the 00:35:37.329 --> 00:35:40.230 Remain consul, masterfully exploited. He secured 00:35:40.230 --> 00:35:43.539 a compromise. Caesar was not declared a tyrant, 00:35:43.599 --> 00:35:45.679 meaning all his laws and appointments stood, 00:35:45.820 --> 00:35:47.739 which preserved the status of Antony and many 00:35:47.739 --> 00:35:50.579 senators. In return, the conspirators were not 00:35:50.579 --> 00:35:53.000 immediately punished. But that was temporary. 00:35:53.659 --> 00:35:56.519 Antony's oration at Caesar's massive public funeral 00:35:56.519 --> 00:35:59.960 was brilliant political theater. By reading Caesar's 00:35:59.960 --> 00:36:02.440 will, which granted a generous donative to every 00:36:02.440 --> 00:36:05.369 Roman pleb, And by displaying Caesar's bloodstained 00:36:05.369 --> 00:36:07.789 toga and wounds, he inflamed the public against 00:36:07.789 --> 00:36:10.530 the assassins. Mob violence erupted, forcing 00:36:10.530 --> 00:36:13.230 the conspirators to flee Rome permanently. And 00:36:13.230 --> 00:36:15.150 the reading of the will sealed the political 00:36:15.150 --> 00:36:18.210 future, adopting his great nephew, the then 19 00:36:18.210 --> 00:36:20.849 -year -old Gaius Octavius, as his principal heir. 00:36:21.050 --> 00:36:23.449 The rise of Octavian is directly tied to the 00:36:23.449 --> 00:36:26.610 cult of his deified father. A seven -day commentary 00:36:26.610 --> 00:36:30.119 outburst shortly after Caesar's death. Caesar's 00:36:30.119 --> 00:36:32.760 comet was interpreted by the Romans as the immediate 00:36:32.760 --> 00:36:35.199 deification of Caesar. The Republic was dead, 00:36:35.320 --> 00:36:38.260 and the new political era had a divine patron. 00:36:38.599 --> 00:36:41.500 New civil wars erupted, with Octavian, Antony, 00:36:41.500 --> 00:36:44.320 and Lepidus forming the second triumvirate, securing 00:36:44.320 --> 00:36:47.820 the formal deification of Caesar in 42 BC and 00:36:47.820 --> 00:36:50.840 defeating the tyrannicides. Ultimately, Octavian 00:36:50.840 --> 00:36:54.119 seized sole control, establishing a mass autocracy 00:36:54.119 --> 00:36:56.320 that was acceptable to the war -weary Romans, 00:36:56.579 --> 00:36:58.860 transforming the Republic into the Roman Empire 00:36:58.860 --> 00:37:02.239 as Augustus. The assassination, meant to save 00:37:02.239 --> 00:37:04.619 liberty, merely accelerated the consolidation 00:37:04.619 --> 00:37:07.559 of absolute power. Beyond the seismic political 00:37:07.559 --> 00:37:10.380 events, the ancient sources give us a truly vivid 00:37:10.380 --> 00:37:12.920 picture of Caesar the Man. Starting with his 00:37:12.920 --> 00:37:15.280 physical health and appearance, Suetonius described 00:37:15.280 --> 00:37:18.360 him as tall, fair complexioned, with keen black 00:37:18.360 --> 00:37:20.840 eyes. And famously, he was extremely sensitive 00:37:20.840 --> 00:37:23.380 about his balding, using a combover. This is 00:37:23.380 --> 00:37:25.559 why he was so pleased to be granted the unique 00:37:25.559 --> 00:37:27.760 honor of wearing a laurel wreath at all times. 00:37:27.920 --> 00:37:30.739 It conveniently concealed his vanity. It speaks 00:37:30.739 --> 00:37:34.059 to a man who was acutely aware of his public 00:37:34.059 --> 00:37:36.829 presentation. There is also the intensive debate 00:37:36.829 --> 00:37:39.789 about his health. Later sources like Suetonius 00:37:39.789 --> 00:37:42.090 suggest he suffered from the falling sickness 00:37:42.090 --> 00:37:45.030 or epilepsy based on accounts of forced seizures. 00:37:45.329 --> 00:37:48.570 But modern medical scholarship has provided counterarguments. 00:37:48.769 --> 00:37:51.630 Why is the epilepsy diagnosis not universally 00:37:51.630 --> 00:37:54.079 accepted today? Because the description of the 00:37:54.079 --> 00:37:56.300 seizures doesn't perfectly match modern criteria. 00:37:56.699 --> 00:37:58.980 Medical historians suggest he may have suffered 00:37:58.980 --> 00:38:01.860 from cerebral malaria or perhaps cerebrovascular 00:38:01.860 --> 00:38:04.460 episodes, like a series of small strokes. Which 00:38:04.460 --> 00:38:06.320 could explain the sudden deaths of his father 00:38:06.320 --> 00:38:08.780 and forefather. Exactly. Whatever the cause, 00:38:08.900 --> 00:38:11.099 he was clearly a man driven by ambition despite 00:38:11.099 --> 00:38:13.820 chronic physical ailments. And we can't ignore 00:38:13.820 --> 00:38:16.679 the personal slander that followed him, particularly 00:38:16.679 --> 00:38:19.500 the rumors concerning his sexuality. This was 00:38:19.500 --> 00:38:21.739 a brutal but common form of political attack. 00:38:22.280 --> 00:38:25.099 Roman society rigidly viewed the passive role 00:38:25.099 --> 00:38:27.860 in sexual activity as a sign of submission and 00:38:27.860 --> 00:38:30.739 effeminacy, which was shameful for a Roman male 00:38:30.739 --> 00:38:33.860 leader. So his enemies, including Cicero, repeatedly 00:38:33.860 --> 00:38:36.599 referred to him as the Queen of Bithynia. Referencing 00:38:36.599 --> 00:38:39.440 persistent rumors of an affair with King Nicomedes 00:38:39.440 --> 00:38:42.829 IV early in his career. The rumor itself was 00:38:42.829 --> 00:38:44.989 more important than the truth. It was a potent 00:38:44.989 --> 00:38:47.590 political weapon to imply he was subservient 00:38:47.590 --> 00:38:50.710 and thus unfit to rule Romans. And what about 00:38:50.710 --> 00:38:53.610 the rumor that Marcus Junius Brutus was his illegitimate 00:38:53.610 --> 00:38:56.550 son? Highly skeptical, both among ancient and 00:38:56.550 --> 00:38:59.429 modern historians, primarily based on chronology. 00:38:59.900 --> 00:39:02.340 Caesar was only about 15 when Brutus was born. 00:39:02.460 --> 00:39:05.199 It seems to be purely political gossip added 00:39:05.199 --> 00:39:07.500 for dramatic effect. Beyond the battlefield in 00:39:07.500 --> 00:39:10.059 the bedroom, Caesar was an intellectual powerhouse. 00:39:10.260 --> 00:39:12.500 Highly regarded as one of the best Latin prose 00:39:12.500 --> 00:39:15.320 authors and orators of his day, even by his great 00:39:15.320 --> 00:39:18.860 rival, Cicero. His surviving works are masterpieces 00:39:18.860 --> 00:39:22.159 of clear, concise Latin prose, a style that projects 00:39:22.159 --> 00:39:24.679 confidence and control. And his political and 00:39:24.679 --> 00:39:26.800 personal dominance is codified in his enduring 00:39:26.800 --> 00:39:29.780 political legacy. which we define as Caesarism. 00:39:30.099 --> 00:39:33.639 Caesarism is a precise political model, a form 00:39:33.639 --> 00:39:36.460 of rule led by a charismatic strongman relying 00:39:36.460 --> 00:39:39.619 on a deeply personal cult of personality, often 00:39:39.619 --> 00:39:41.579 cemented by the prominence and direct support 00:39:41.579 --> 00:39:44.239 of the military. And we see figures throughout 00:39:44.239 --> 00:39:48.079 history explicitly adopting this model. Absolutely. 00:39:48.260 --> 00:39:51.019 Figures like Napoleon Bonaparte and Benito Mussolini 00:39:51.019 --> 00:39:54.159 explicitly define themselves as inheritors of 00:39:54.159 --> 00:39:57.000 the Caesarist tradition. They saw him as the 00:39:57.000 --> 00:39:59.420 definitive example of a leader who successfully 00:39:59.420 --> 00:40:02.599 transcended petty partisan squabbling through 00:40:02.599 --> 00:40:05.440 military authority. So if we look back at the 00:40:05.440 --> 00:40:08.440 entirety of this deep dive, Caesar stands as 00:40:08.440 --> 00:40:10.980 the supreme military commander. an aggressive 00:40:10.980 --> 00:40:14.539 administrative reformer, and ultimately the irreversible 00:40:14.539 --> 00:40:17.179 catalyst for the fall of the constitutional Roman 00:40:17.179 --> 00:40:19.820 Republic. He achieved monarchy by rejecting the 00:40:19.820 --> 00:40:22.199 crown, and his influence remains tangible today. 00:40:22.400 --> 00:40:24.679 The remains of Caesar's altar in the Roman Forum, 00:40:24.840 --> 00:40:27.260 the exact spot where he was cremated, is still 00:40:27.260 --> 00:40:29.739 a pilgrimage site. People leave flowers there 00:40:29.739 --> 00:40:32.360 daily, especially on the Ides of March. He is 00:40:32.360 --> 00:40:34.420 still actively venerated almost 2 ,000 years 00:40:34.420 --> 00:40:36.989 later. It's incredible. We've explored the assassination 00:40:36.989 --> 00:40:39.349 as the desperate attempt by the conspirators 00:40:39.349 --> 00:40:42.030 to restore the free republic, to kill the dictator 00:40:42.030 --> 00:40:44.289 and allow constitutional government to live again. 00:40:44.409 --> 00:40:47.590 But we know what happened next. His heir, Octavian, 00:40:47.750 --> 00:40:50.849 secured Caesar's deification and went on to establish 00:40:50.849 --> 00:40:54.050 a masked autocracy acceptable to the war -weary 00:40:54.050 --> 00:40:56.010 Romans. So this is the provocative thought we 00:40:56.010 --> 00:40:58.059 want to leave with you. The conspirators killed 00:40:58.059 --> 00:41:00.300 the dictator to save the republic, believing 00:41:00.300 --> 00:41:02.719 they were acting as liberators. But by eliminating 00:41:02.719 --> 00:41:05.619 Caesar, they removed the one man who had the 00:41:05.619 --> 00:41:08.260 personal charisma and military authority to possibly 00:41:08.260 --> 00:41:11.139 keep the centralized structure he created under 00:41:11.139 --> 00:41:14.539 any sort of single stable control. Did the Ides 00:41:14.539 --> 00:41:16.780 of March inadvertently accelerate the transition 00:41:16.780 --> 00:41:19.139 to absolute monarchy? Did they prove that the 00:41:19.139 --> 00:41:21.059 constitutional government of the republic was 00:41:21.059 --> 00:41:24.039 already too fractured? too corrupt, and simply 00:41:24.039 --> 00:41:26.659 impossible to restore in a world defined by military 00:41:26.659 --> 00:41:29.260 power? What stands out to you as the greatest 00:41:29.260 --> 00:41:30.760 consequence of the Ides of March?