Okay, so we have an episode coming out next week
all about auditory processing. It's called Autism
and Auditory Low Inhibition plus High Excitation
Equals Sensory Overloop. We have a episode, a
whiteboard on the auditory brainstem response,
which I have mapped out here again, but that
episode was just about the ABR and it really
hit wave five. because of the mesencephalon,
which is here on the brain stem, and because
of the the known roles of the mesencephalon with
toxicity phenotype including sensory processing,
hearing, and eyes, and motor movements. So the
mesencephalon is a big region of interest for
me and for autism research it should be anyways.
So we'll do some more um auditory brainstem response
because it's a big part of hearing. And then
we'll also cover listening to sonnets in this
whiteboard series and maybe the auditory cortex,
which is up along and through here. So this is
so obviously the cochlear and then this is slices
of the brainstem. Remember, if you're looking
at the brainstem and you just want to because
it's so dense and packed. if you just kind of
slice it open here and kind of extract the little
slice out that way you can see right here because
it's just so dense right there okay it's kind
of like what we're doing here like different
sections of it um this is the medulla part which
is kind of where this is and then we're working
up this is the pons the pons has the little football
shape okay this is the brain stem And then the
mesencephalons at the top, very small area. And
that's here. And then right here is the subcortical
areas. And just highlighted here is the thalamus.
Got the thalamus here. We'll get there though.
So this is just working our way up because hearing
comes in through the ears, reaches the medulla,
to the pons, to the mesencephalon, and it works
its way up. Okay, so there's a lot more steps
here compared to vision, to the thalamus, to
the lateral geniculate, and then to the superior
colliculus, which is here. Okay, vision is just
straight through. So from retina, pretty much
to the lateral geniculate nucleus, which is the
relay station, and superior colliculus. And then
it can just start to recruit downstream. Regents
for the sensation perception sensory processing
Here is a little bit different. Okay, there's
essentially seven steps to get to the thalamus
to the cortex It takes five maybe six to get
to the brain outside of the brain stem. Okay,
so This is the cochlea, of course, and this is
where it starts. Okay, this is one so sounds
come in and enter the cochlea okay and then you
know it's spiraled it's very interesting that
it's spiraled it's kind of reminded me of scent
hounds they have they have like turbines um in
their nostrils and it kind of accelerates electrical
signals and it really increases their ability
to smell so whether scent hounds sounds are you
know they have the longer nostril or the longer
nozzle compared to sighthounds sighthounds will
have a smaller but this is a cochlear right and
this is where a lot of power happens the eighth
cranial nerve is it's kind of here so eighth
cranial nerve and the cochlea so what is very
fascinating about the cochlea is because this
is the most DC voltage the human body has. This
is the biggest power right here. And the formula,
it's called endocochlear potential, or EP for
short. Endocochlear potential. And this is involving
some potassium ions. This is in the endolent,
which is 99 % water. We're going to talk a lot
about water and melanin here. Melanin is very
underrated here. Jack Cruz is the only one I've
ever heard talk about melanin's role with this
process. And then peri lymph. Okay? And then
hair cells. Because we're making our way to the
stria basculare. This is where this endocochlear
potential is happening. We can map out Millimoles,
okay, so the indolent remembers 99 % water potassium
ion million moles is 150 Roughly. All right,
let's let's go here Well, we got the sodium there
Let's go here and then we'll do the potassium
Sodium which isn't so much involved here though.
Okay, and then We'll just like make a table here.
Why not? We'll get through it. And then we'll
vote. Okay. Sodium here is low. It's only one
or two. The perilymph is no more than five. So
already a big difference here. But it has a lot
of sodium. Roughly 150. The hair cells similar
to the endolymph. 140 to 150. Just showing up.
Not bad. It's not bad. Sodium here is not very
many. We'll call it 10. Okay, so we can think
of this as, okay, this is a big difference here.
Okay, so step one is kind of delta potassium
ion. That's the way we can see this, the differences.
Okay, yeah. All right, so now the millivolt.
Okay, this gradient here and that is, you can,
Look at this as Delta V. The difference is in
volts. This is a big difference right here. So
this is plus 85 to 100, okay? The peri length
is essentially zero. Maybe plus five, maybe.
the hair cells minus okay so this is what we're
talking about right here look at this delta this
is a big thing here this is approximately a difference
there's a delta here oh good night 145 to 155
the millimoles charges the millivolts. And this
is where the action potential happens. This is
where the wave, the sound wave turns into an
electrical current, electrical signal. It's all
happening right here. This is the most power
in the human body. Now, I erased one. I erased
one. Let's put this back up in black. Okay, so
ADR2 is exiting the cochlear and reaching the
dorsal and ventral cochlear nerves okay this
is happening at about 2 .5 milliseconds so there's
not a whole lot happening right now between let's
say typical in autistics okay there's not a lot
there's a lot of excitation though so no problem
with the autistic phenotype there's a lot of
especially coming off of that electrical potential
that endocochlear potential. ABR3 is the action
of the dorsal and ventricle cochlear nerves which
is here and here. So what is happening at this
moment and this is occurring at approximately
three and a half milliseconds so we can call
it DCN and VCN so it kind of branches off and
hits both of these and then these will reach
speak over there's also some facial nerves here
and some other things that it's doing within
it's really synchronizing the cochlear nerve
and it's making its setting order for the very
crucial brain region little nuclei here called
the superior olive which is leading us to two
three and then four three and four is going to
be a lot happening superior olivary and the medial
okay this is happening at about four and a half
to five milliseconds there's a lot happening
at this point the superior olive We'll start
to send signals up. This is just kind of spliced.
This is the lamenskull. Okay, so superior olive
and the medial olive to the lamenskull. This
is going to be a large part. Lamenskis. Lamenskis.
Okay, and also in fault here will be the medial,
I should have disabbreviated this, nucleus of
the trapezoid body. MNTB. So to be fair, this
would be three. And then the laminscus up at
the top. The laminscus is kind of probably like,
it covers a large area there, like so. You can
see it if you splice open the mesencephalon.
You can see it. This is where this is where ears
both ears are coming into play okay there's a
thing called i t d i l d okay this is the superior
olive here so i t d and i l d for the medial
olive the medial olive is where contralateral
excitation happening okay so contralateral remember
so this is the midline right through here okay
and then one side and then the other side so
if you just stay on this side it's ipsilateral
if you combine the sides that's contralateral
so we're beginning to have both ears come into
play from three and four and there's a lot happening
okay So ITD with the Superior Olive is microsecond
level timing differences between the two ears
for sound localization. ILD is differences in
sound intensity of both ears. Okay. For that
localization and especially at higher frequencies.
So excitation and inhibition here is all of that's
excitation. All right. And there's a, it's reaching
the laminscus at some point, you know, because
it's just, this is just a splice showing, but
there's some depth to it, okay? There is a lot
of burst firing happening here. And that's excitation
with the ventral nucleus of the laminscus. And
then inhibition. This right here is huge for
inhibition. This is glycine. This is using glycine
while the another part of the laminscus, the
dorsal nucleus of the lateral laminscus is using
GABA. The GABA here with this laminscus is trying
to provide duration in the tone. Because there's
a lot of excitation coming up because we want
these things firing fast. because we want to
process the sound. But we have to be careful
and not overload it and allow unwanted noises
to enter. At each step, we're trying to filter
out as much as possible. And this is inhibition.
So now we're at the laminscus. Okay. So wave
three to four is very important. In the autistic
phenotype, there is a lot of jittering and irregular
inhibition that distorts to be overwhelmed, this
process here. So if this process is overwhelmed
or getting overran, what do you think downstream
is happening? We always talk about upstream versus
downstream. Here, it's a little backwards though,
right? Because we're moving upstream, but as
we move upstream, it's actually downstream. You
see that? It's so fun. So auditory brain response,
brainstem response five. We covered this pretty
good in the episode about the mesencephalon.
So this is entering in the inferior colliculus.
I talk about the both of the colliculi a lot
superior for vision inferior for hearing. Okay,
and this is a big brainstem area, okay, because
this is a lot of sensory integration and modulating
the attention. Which is, you know, I always talk
about modulating the attention of to the outside
world is a big thing with the mesencephalon.
All right. So it has large glutamatergic excitation
convergence in both the ventral endorcella and
this is providing input and taking in these bineural
because this is what we're doing here I didn't
mention the word the definition but bineural
we're taking all of that in and it's being sent
up to here so from the laminscus to the inferior
colliculus here and that's five so four kind
of covers all of this because there's a lot happening
so four would be kind of like through here and
then five right here so it's kind of like one
is out of the picture two is entering in here
three to four is going in here two is entering
the brain stem and then five at this point we
need the strong gamma and a lot of times with
the sensory processing we talk about how autistic
stay in gamma and it's for event related potentials
it's overwhelming But with hearing, with this
dynamic electrical capacity, we want the gamma
to help suppress. So once again, it's kind of
backwards. With the autistic phenotype, it has
a hard time achieving that gamma because of the
backwards sensation. Okay. Once it hits the inferior
colliculus here, remember, the part of the thalamus
for auditory, the relay station for auditory
is the medial. geniculate nucleus which is if
you can see it it's the inside here remember
if this is the midline so medial means middle
and then which is here and then the lateral geniculate
which is here okay this one would represent here
so we're going to go up to the medial geniculate
nucleus and this is six This is five. So we're
entering, we're entering the subcortical areas.
We're finally entering the brain off of the brain
stem at six. And the time here for us to get
to ABR five is roughly six milliseconds. So within
six milliseconds, sound enters the brain and
it hits the brain stem within six milliseconds.
Okay, and then we're entering up and from here.
We're going to start recruiting more areas to
make sense of what we're hearing because remember
we have not even Become close to reaching perception
yet at this point. We have no idea what the noises
are at this point We're just working our way
up to brain areas that can really Make meaning
of the sounds this is happening at about seven
milliseconds. And also in play here is the TRN,
the shell. Remember this is all GABA. This is
just, pretend like this is cut out just so you
can see how it's protecting it, how it's covering
it. So if this was the thalamus, this would be
the TRN, the thalamic reticular nucleus. Because
the thalamus needs protection. Because we cannot
just be overwhelmed with sensory. The medial
will send some signals to the auditory cortex
and then some signals to the thalamus inside
the thalamus. So from here to auditory cortex
and then some will enter. Now the TRN, remember
from the TRN inhibition and autism episode, it
has different sectors. Visual sector, auditory
sector and somatosensory sector. Things that
will help with like touch even so the auditory
sector just like all of the sectors related to
protection and sensory gating is Compromised
especially since the signals coming in has already
been kind of compromised itself So each stop
it's just picking up more and more Complications
so we've entered the thalamus and early parts
of the auditory cortex. Okay, so a br 7 the final
destination is the thalamus various parts of
the thalamus and To a 1 we'll just call a 1 this
happens about 9 milliseconds 8 to 9 There's just
remember just like anything really in biology
in neuroscience each Downstream region that is
hitting it's going to start recruiting more and
more regions. That's the way you can think about
that So as we're working our way up, there's
not a whole lot of other connections being made
Okay, like that as we coming up through this
brainstem it could send some descending fibers
down to help us with Perifial and it's also going
to eventually hit the cerebellum because right
about here is where some inputs to the cerebellum
will happen. You can see a little, it looks like
a thorn. Like a rose thorn. Stick out and then
the cerebellum will develop around this. Behind
the brain stem, okay? So we made it from noise
entering the cochlea to that huge action potential.
The electrical gradient here. Remember with the
endolymph. Paralymph and the hair cells. Okay,
the sodium or the potassium ions and the millivolts,
that gradient, just the electrical capacity.
Then we worked our way to the medulla with the
ventral and dorsal cochlear inoculus. Then we
recruited the olive, the olivary. Then we sent
it up to the laminscus. Then we entered the bineural.
So both sides can start making sense of it. Then
to the brainstem, or the mesencephalon specifically,
of the brainstem, the very top of it. And then
into the cortex, or the human brain. And then
thalamus, of course. Also a part of the auditory
brain response seven. is something that I want
to end on because I mentioned it is thalamocortical
okay remember the thalamus is it's taking in
all sensations coming in that get to enter that
the trn allows to enter okay some of them have
different privileges remember on the trn episode
we talked about how some things have more privilege
and some things are more restricted okay but
the thalamus has a lot of different subdivisions
here. A main one for sensory is back here, pulmonary,
and then another one up here is mediodorsal subdivision.
And these two will, not just those two though,
will start to recruit up through the cortex,
okay, and that's the thalamocortical. From this
point we can map out the many layers because
The auditory cortex has its own mini -layer,
and then all of these other cortical regions
have their own types of mini -columns. The biggest
thing with the mini -columns is layer 4. Remember,
thus, the thalamus enters the mini -columns in
layer 4. Not layer 1 to work its way down, or
not layer 6 to work its way up. Inputs go into
the mini -columns about halfway, layer 4. So
this is the auditory brainstem response as well.
more detail than the previous episode, okay?
So we'll keep this out because I want to talk
about listening dissonance. Listening dissonance
and filtering unwanted noises up through this.
If you want to look at it through here or just
up through here. Listening dissonance kind of
starts with three and four because we're losing
our capacity to inhibit noises coming up. So
This is gonna be gone Just for the little ABR
table, and I want to talk about listening to
sonnets though because listening to sonnets is
Why I want to talk about it so bad is it's not
well understood. You probably never even heard
of it, but every autistic phenotype Struggles
with it. I promise you It's when sounds blend
It's a big problem. See I want to make sure I
don't miss anything here. Okay So let's talk
about listening to sonnets. So what is this?
Just sounds blending. That's exactly what it
is. So there's two things that I want to kind
of get into two kind of Analogies that I think
might help with this because of the inhibition
the excitation inhibition So remember if we draw
out the seesaw analogy Excitation here Inhibition
here. This is the default for the autistic phenotype
high excitation, low inhibition because of a
lot of those inhibitory cells being missed in
large part here and throughout and throughout
the brain regions okay because we're going to
talk about more cortex areas with this listening
dissonance and I think you'll be able to make
sense of it. So as signals come in and we're
reaching the cochlear neculis is here with From
2 to 3 in the brainstem response and then from
3 to 4 is where it really starts to kind of blend
Okay, by the time the signal reaches this brainstem
area here this superior olive right here and
the inferior all the way up to the inferior colliculus
so from 3 to 4 and then 4 to 5 is Whenever it's
starting to happen a roll of these areas the
the olivary, the leminscus, and the inferior
colliculus is suppressing unwanted sounds. So
how does it know what it wants to pay attention
to is a good question. Well, one thing you can
think of is we're mapping this out from a beginning,
but rarely, if ever, as you're navigating the
social world as a living organism. is you're
not going to have any noises, and then suddenly
noises are just going to start. So that's something
you really need to consider, okay? There's always
background noises going on if you're up. So whenever
it's sending signals up, new signals coming up,
and the thalamus has recruited out with that
thalamocortical... pathway in the auditory cortex,
the brain can kind of respond back and understand
what noises are relevant, what noises are salient
versus the ones that are not. So it can send
signals back down to the olivary cortex, the
lamenscus, and the inferior colliculus to kind
of help shut off kind of prevent these from happening
so a good way of thinking about this is and it's
good that we use green but I'm going to think
about this as water hose okay plumbing plumbing
is weird weird weird things here okay so this
is the water hose and then actually it mostly
It mostly goes straight, doesn't it? See, plumbing's
weird. So you have this. And then let's say you
have a faucet, okay? So you have a faucet, okay?
You want it, you can turn it on. So all through
here, I want to go green. I want to go green.
Let's just say this is water, okay? Because these
are the signals coming up. the brain stem. And
then these kind of areas are the areas trying
to filter this out. And even the cortex trying
to suppress these sounds. If you have a leak
here, or if you're trying to control the water
flow here, but you can't, water is just going
to come out uncontrollably. Okay, and this is
kind of what this is with that endococcal potential.
Where you have this strong electrical potential
in that strong gradient just to shoot noises
up But if you don't have the inhibition the inhibition
could be a couple of different things it could
be the handle that turns it on and off or maybe
there's a Maybe there's a filter Maybe there's
a special filter here so that you don't have
the unwanted things of the water like fluoride
or something to get out But maybe that filters
bad you haven't changed it in a while. So now
you're getting all of this fluoride and unwanted
particles out in the water because inhibition
downstream Is letting this in so your your filter
or maybe you even have a filter coming into your
house an extra filter, which is popular It's
pretty common now. This filter is bad. The role
of inhibition here is to get rid of these red
marks, which is unwanted, which is no good, okay?
So if you want to think about it, the green are
the gold signals. So we have glutamate excitation
running this way because that's the direction
of the water flow. And this is helping it. it's
helping it push it along at faster rates because
that's our default. Our default is go especially
with sensation perception. But then you have
inhibition things like parvalbium interneuron
and somatostatin and basal intestinal peptides
remember that are acting on as a disinhibition.
We have these let's say we just have parvalbium
and so forth like this. This is kind of wanting
to block. So we have inhibition here, and here,
and some here. But we can't, based off of the
context and the capacity of these inhibitions,
we can't naturally control the output, the flow
of the noises. So sometimes the autistic phenotype
is overwhelmed with this water. Okay, so you
could think of this as the difference between
a water hose outside and a fire hydrant, maybe.
The fire hydrant is a good way of thinking about
autistic stability for sensory processing. It's
a fire hose of information, Carl Weiser Roth
says, and projections. Here, projections. It's
a torrent of information, he calls it, and it's
accurate. because there's no stop signals here.
There is no stopping here. And each one of these
areas here, the olivary, the laminscus here,
and then the inferior colliculus, is trying to
provide a little bit of stopping. Because once
it hits the thalamus, especially with this TRM
that is already in a bad state, Bad condition
everything is just going to start to become overwhelming.
So this is very similar to the ear canal We should
have built -in inhibition Mainly up through here
though To help stop filter out this stuff. We're
up here and we have a lot of noise We have a
lot of noise now coming in. It's just okay. We'll
use green. It's becoming overwhelming We have
so much to perceive here, okay? With the auditory
cortex, which is here, and then if we map out...
Let's just draw a side view of this, okay? So
we have the pons, and the brain stem, kind of
the cerebellum. Inferior colliculus is here,
okay? It's here. That's what this is. Superior
colliculus here. And then we have the thalamus.
Medial geniculate, the lateral geniculate. I'm
just going to make this kind of so this is the
thalamus here okay because I want to highlight
the big thing with listening to sonnets here
so the occipital the parietal the sensory motor
here the prefrontal cortex kind of this temporal
lobe okay so as noises start to become overwhelming
so a1 is over here okay that's more occipital
A1 is up here and it's very lateral. It's very
lateral. So A1 is up here and it's trying to...
This is where perception happens, okay? We do
not understand the noises until A1 kind of helps
make sense of it. Like if you hear your favorite
song and maybe it takes one second or one or
two tones and you recognize the song. Versus,
oh what's that song? What is that song? You're
just sitting there, what song is that? You know...
you're trying to you're working here in the auditory
cortex and other areas of the cortex remember
layers two and three in the mini columns we'll
help you get there but the thalamus is sending
signals up to those many columns to recruit layers
two and three because layers two and three is
where your experiences live your subjective experiences
and your intelligence live okay so the big thing
with listening to sonus here with recruiting
the rest of this cortex is going to be massive.
To compensate this overwhelming noise coming
through here into the thalamus and the auditory
cortex, the brain and your sensory processing
will attempt to recruit distal connections especially
the medial prefrontal cortex which is here. The
first time we mentioned this was in the Autism
and Adaptive Responses episode where we parsed
out the medial prefrontal cortex, the ACC, anterior
cingulate cortex, which is a subdivision here,
and the anterior insula, which is about right
here, very lateral, but also right here. So we
have the dorsal lateral up here and the orbital
prefrontal cortex right here. Orbital prefrontal
cortex. medial prefrontal cortex is in the middle
and then this outside surface right here is the
dorsal lateral okay whenever you're trying to
oh before i explain the circuitry here with listening
and dissonance a major role of the prefrontal
cortex if you're just going to explain it in
one role it's to shhh a neurosurgeon said this
um casey helper the role of the prefrontal cortex
is to quiet the rest of these subcortical areas.
It's inactivating the subcortical areas. That
way you can recruit adaptive responses. So with
this listening to solanets and becoming this
sensory overload, remember because of this scenario
right here, low inhibition, high excitation equals
sensory overload. The brain is trying to recruit
these more higher order functioning. So it's
top down control over this situation because
your ears will start to throb and you just can't
make sense of it and you can feel yourself becoming
overwhelmed. This is called signal to noise.
Signal is healthy. Noise is not healthy. You
want to the whole thing we're talking about over
here is quieting the noise filtering out the
noise okay so good bad okay so these brain regions
here that are for adaptive responses and top
-down control are recruited and they're heavily
involved and it doesn't matter if you're autistic
or not you can hook up um Put the scalp fMRI
on and measure brainwaves even in the typical
these areas will begin to heighten because it's
trying to Provide effort into quieting these
areas right here It's pretty an effort into quieting
this and it becomes difficult even for the typical
it's kind of compensating here But because of
the autistic phenotype being like this there's
even so much excitation here and there's not
enough parvalbum interneuron especially with
this area right here and the ACC and the anterior
insula. The anterior insula is paying attention
to bodily states so as you're becoming overwhelmed
your heart rate will change and so is your breathing
your depth and rate of your breathing and that
is being fed up to the posterior insula and the
anterior insula right here. And to the ACC. Remember
the ACC? It's measuring conflict monitoring.
It's measuring error detection. It's signaling
errors are happening. I'm becoming overwhelmed.
What do I need to do? I need to do something.
And the anterior insula is being hijacked by
the bodily states. And now the brain states are
working overdrive even in the typical. It's providing
a lot of effort to clear out and free up the
sensory processing. It becomes so much that emotional
circuits are also being recruited because of
the brain states even and the bodily states.
So remember that third role of the anterior insula.
is evaluating the environment. So it has three
main data sources, brain, body, environment.
And this thing is becoming overwhelmed. And so
it's hijacking. It's allowing these processes
to be hijacked. So the insula is a good friend
and a very powerful enemy. This depends on who's
leading the way here. Remember, we talk about
who's leading the way. When we're adapting, when
we're responding well to the environment, areas
like the dorsal lateral and the medial prefrontal
will lead the way. It will orchestrate the circuitry
needed in these lower areas here instead of vice
versa. When we are overwhelmed, these lower areas
like the amygdala here and this ACC become hyperactive
and they're hyperconnective and these are emotional
circuitries. It gets to the point where these
are hijacked and including here. The orbital
frontal cortex is roughly 90 % sensory even though
it's a so -called prefrontal cortex, okay? So
the orbital frontal cortex, the amygdala which
is not our fear center. People get rid of that.
That's a bad misnomer. Fear center is all about
correlates. We are past the times of this brain
region equals this. The amygdala is also involved
with positive things too and motivation, not
just fear. So come on. And then the anterior
insula. Whenever these things are this kind of
hijacked like this and the prefrontal becomes
shut off, we leave because that's the only option
at that point. Is it an adaptive response? Maybe,
depends on who you ask. If you would ask, well,
looking back at it, maybe not. But in real time,
that is the option because it is impossible to
filter out all of this excessive noise coming
up through here and overwhelming. The brain.
Overwhelming the thalamus. And that is listening
to sonnets. This is a bad thing. And it's uncontrollable.
This is why people will wear the noise -canceling
headphones now. And they're screaming kids. And
they're just overwhelmed. Even adults. Even like
family gatherings. It's like gone. That's the
option. It's gone. Because you can't control
it. Remember I say in the podcast episode sometimes
that 1960s Beatles like 1967 and 1968 Beatles
Sgt. Pepper's album right here white album right
here. They started to experience or experiment
with different noises different instruments that
make noises and things just around the recording
studio. They just started to make noise with
them and blend them together at the end of the
songs. And the songs would just carry on with
all this orchestrated, bizarre music blends.
And that's what it sounds like. That's what it
sounds like in real time whenever you're out.
And it's getting loud. You can't discriminate
the sources of the sounds. You can't. Even if
they're lower volume sounds, but they're multiple.
multiple sources of sounds that will hijack these
areas as well because at first you can pay attention
you can pay attention to the different sources
of sounds coming in almost like you can follow
along with different maybe conversations but
then all of a sudden it comes so fast let me
tell you it comes so fast these things will just
blend in and these areas right here will just
hijack you and There's no more dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex or the medial prefrontal cortex. The ACC
cannot make sense of it. So you go. And this
brings me to what I want to say most. It's not
uncommon that the autistic phenotype children
are overwhelmed and they leave. And they're found
in bodies of water. Drowned. It's every week.
Whenever the autistic phenotype is becoming like
this, the worst thing you can do is talk to them.
Why are you sitting there just keep talking to
them? Well, what's the matter? What's the matter?
What do you need? What do you need? Well, I can't
even understand it. People that are involved
in autism, even different types of educators
or people that's trying to provide them therapy
and so forth, they don't understand the autistic
phenotype. I don't understand it. Listening to
Sonus, this episode will be out next week, and
this will just help maybe follow along with it.
We didn't talk much about the auditory cortex,
but I don't necessarily want to now, but that's
where perceptions happen.