WEBVTT 00:00:01.419 --> 00:00:05.139 Before we begin this episode about reading, I 00:00:05.139 --> 00:00:08.519 want to say there's lots of neurobiology, measurement 00:00:08.519 --> 00:00:12.119 instruments, and brain waves, sometimes called 00:00:12.119 --> 00:00:15.560 oscillations or frequencies. However, I will 00:00:15.560 --> 00:00:18.480 hopefully provide easy -to -understand analogies. 00:00:19.339 --> 00:00:22.219 We will go through the entire reading process 00:00:22.219 --> 00:00:26.339 from the moment, light, hysterectomy, to formulating 00:00:26.339 --> 00:00:30.699 speech. We will also compare so -called normal 00:00:30.699 --> 00:00:35.600 readers, the autistic phenotype, and dyslexia, 00:00:35.600 --> 00:00:39.619 and at times the odd contrast of the autistic 00:00:39.619 --> 00:00:45.020 phenotype and dyslexia. Today's episode is all 00:00:45.020 --> 00:00:49.640 about reading. We will discuss the reading process, 00:00:50.280 --> 00:00:54.960 the neurobiology of course, a breakdown of visualizing 00:00:54.960 --> 00:00:59.619 the text and transforming that into understanding. 00:00:59.880 --> 00:01:04.400 comprehension, how to formulate that into speech. 00:01:05.680 --> 00:01:09.700 You will find out if you don't already know we 00:01:09.700 --> 00:01:15.200 use speech even when silently reading to ourselves. 00:01:16.739 --> 00:01:20.159 100 % of autistics have a problem, some sort 00:01:20.159 --> 00:01:24.840 of problem with speech and language. We will 00:01:24.840 --> 00:01:29.000 also explore the spelling issues, why and how. 00:01:29.099 --> 00:01:33.280 Some people, especially autistics, can get caught 00:01:33.280 --> 00:01:39.000 up on reading fluency. We will discuss dyslexia 00:01:39.000 --> 00:01:43.799 and several brain regions. Reading is a sophisticated 00:01:43.799 --> 00:01:47.840 cognitive process that transforms written text 00:01:47.840 --> 00:01:52.040 into meaning through a left -lateralized brain 00:01:52.040 --> 00:01:55.280 network. Considering the autistic phenotypes 00:01:55.280 --> 00:01:59.879 fast, sensory processing Let's start before the 00:01:59.879 --> 00:02:03.519 brain even makes sense of the words. Which is 00:02:03.519 --> 00:02:06.680 in the little neculi in the occipital temporal 00:02:06.680 --> 00:02:09.099 lobe which is a combination of the occipital 00:02:09.099 --> 00:02:15.219 and temporal lobes called visual word form area 00:02:15.219 --> 00:02:21.099 VWFA We'll talk a lot about that later. Let's 00:02:21.099 --> 00:02:24.620 start with the retina. When you look at a word 00:02:24.620 --> 00:02:29.319 like dog on a page light hits your eyes. You 00:02:29.319 --> 00:02:31.879 probably know about the rods and cones and then 00:02:31.879 --> 00:02:37.000 the retinal ganglion cells that track back through 00:02:37.000 --> 00:02:39.219 your thalamus. The thalamus is going to be a 00:02:39.219 --> 00:02:42.759 first stop here, the lateral geniculate thalamus. 00:02:42.939 --> 00:02:46.740 We talked about this with the oxytocin, the magnocellular 00:02:46.740 --> 00:02:50.199 and parvocellular types of cell types used for 00:02:50.199 --> 00:02:54.259 vision. Now also remember the lateral geniculate 00:02:54.259 --> 00:02:58.379 is right there by the midbrain. It essentially 00:02:58.379 --> 00:03:02.259 reaches out and high fives things like the superior 00:03:02.259 --> 00:03:06.240 colliculus and so forth from the midbrain discussions. 00:03:06.680 --> 00:03:10.120 So from the lateral geniculate, the optic nerve 00:03:10.120 --> 00:03:14.180 to the primary visual cortex, which is V1 in 00:03:14.180 --> 00:03:20.080 the back of your brain. V1 is active 50 to 100 00:03:20.080 --> 00:03:24.020 milliseconds. This is like a sketch artist just 00:03:24.020 --> 00:03:28.419 kind of mapping out the drawing and this is spotting 00:03:28.419 --> 00:03:33.219 the lines and curves of the D or the O for the 00:03:33.219 --> 00:03:39.180 dog example. EEG catches this spike and fMRI 00:03:39.180 --> 00:03:44.080 shows the V1 lit up. MEG confirms it's the first 00:03:44.080 --> 00:03:48.620 stop with precise timing. Next secondary visual 00:03:48.620 --> 00:03:53.460 areas which is V2, V3, and V4 take over from 00:03:53.460 --> 00:03:57.460 100 to 150 milliseconds. They're like puzzle 00:03:57.460 --> 00:04:01.000 -builders. They are just piecing together these 00:04:01.000 --> 00:04:05.060 lines into letters and shapes, ensuring, for 00:04:05.060 --> 00:04:11.199 instance, that D isn't a B. EEG shows early signals 00:04:11.199 --> 00:04:17.000 before the N170, and ItMeG maps connections to 00:04:17.000 --> 00:04:23.329 V1. And fMRI pinpoints these areas. V4 starts 00:04:23.329 --> 00:04:26.470 saying, by the time we get to the last visual 00:04:26.470 --> 00:04:32.129 process here of the visual cortex, V4 says, this 00:04:32.129 --> 00:04:35.290 is text. This isn't something insignificant. 00:04:36.290 --> 00:04:38.670 This is all happening before the visual word 00:04:38.670 --> 00:04:43.829 form area recognizes this as dog. Hard stop here, 00:04:44.209 --> 00:04:47.819 a cool side note. kind of independent from this 00:04:47.819 --> 00:04:51.459 conversation about autism, dyslexia, and reading. 00:04:51.800 --> 00:04:55.860 And this is how blind people kind of repurpose. 00:04:55.920 --> 00:04:59.779 They have neuroplasticity in this V1 through 00:04:59.779 --> 00:05:05.420 V4 areas for reading tactile in the braille. 00:05:05.720 --> 00:05:09.579 And they also repurpose these V1 to V4 areas 00:05:09.579 --> 00:05:13.899 for auditory sensations. So there's kind of a 00:05:13.899 --> 00:05:17.230 heightened area here. Words like amazing and 00:05:17.230 --> 00:05:20.709 fascinating don't even describe how wow this 00:05:20.709 --> 00:05:26.009 is. Now here's how it works. Typically congenitally 00:05:26.009 --> 00:05:29.810 blind individuals or those that luster eyesight 00:05:29.810 --> 00:05:33.310 early in life will better repurpose these areas 00:05:33.310 --> 00:05:38.569 and these V1 to V4 areas are recruited for that 00:05:38.569 --> 00:05:42.540 sensory processing with the BREL. Neuroplasticity 00:05:42.540 --> 00:05:46.439 in the human living organism is wild. So let's 00:05:46.439 --> 00:05:48.879 talk about two different things here that's been 00:05:48.879 --> 00:05:52.019 mentioned several times across the podcast. One 00:05:52.019 --> 00:05:54.699 is the heightened so -called heightened sensory 00:05:54.699 --> 00:05:58.879 processing and the mechanism by which this happens 00:05:58.879 --> 00:06:03.040 is neurooscillations or brain waves. We talked 00:06:03.040 --> 00:06:07.379 about those both in several episodes but let's 00:06:07.379 --> 00:06:10.579 expand on those. Often I've mentioned the waves 00:06:10.579 --> 00:06:14.660 and not really having direct order, but let's 00:06:14.660 --> 00:06:18.079 clarify this. The lowest oscillation is delta, 00:06:18.759 --> 00:06:26.079 0 .5 to 4 hertz. Theta, 4 to 8 hertz. Alpha, 00:06:26.620 --> 00:06:32.819 8 to 12 hertz. Beta, 13 to 30 hertz. And then 00:06:32.819 --> 00:06:37.029 there's gamma, anything over 30. However, Gamma 00:06:37.029 --> 00:06:40.050 has two different kind of stages, low gamma, 00:06:40.410 --> 00:06:45.750 which is 30 to 80 Hertz and high gamma over 80 00:06:45.750 --> 00:06:49.870 Hertz. The best way to think about this, I think, 00:06:49.930 --> 00:06:52.230 is if you have one trial learning, let's say 00:06:52.230 --> 00:06:56.189 you're in a traumatic experience or near tragic, 00:06:56.610 --> 00:06:58.670 maybe you're driving in the road and somebody 00:06:58.670 --> 00:07:02.470 runs a stoplight and it almost hits you or it 00:07:02.470 --> 00:07:06.170 does hit you. At that moment, your body is sent 00:07:06.170 --> 00:07:10.069 into these high gamma waves. This means your 00:07:10.069 --> 00:07:13.350 body is going to remember this incident much 00:07:13.350 --> 00:07:17.050 easier. This is the biggest thing with trauma. 00:07:17.649 --> 00:07:20.569 People that experience a traumatic experience, 00:07:21.589 --> 00:07:24.889 their body, just all of these brain waves are 00:07:24.889 --> 00:07:29.069 sent into high gamma. This is the... so -called 00:07:29.069 --> 00:07:32.189 origin of one trial learning. It only takes you 00:07:32.189 --> 00:07:36.170 one time to really learn from that experience. 00:07:36.829 --> 00:07:40.410 Another example is if you touch a stove or touch 00:07:40.410 --> 00:07:44.410 something hot, you typically remember not to 00:07:44.410 --> 00:07:48.149 touch that again. However, independent of this 00:07:48.149 --> 00:07:52.089 one trial learning, everything operating on our 00:07:52.089 --> 00:07:54.990 insides are running on these oscillations. They 00:07:54.990 --> 00:07:59.329 are constantly on oscillations. This is a big 00:07:59.329 --> 00:08:02.129 indicator of our so -called internal states as 00:08:02.129 --> 00:08:07.930 well. Calm or excited, stressed or relaxed, whatever 00:08:07.930 --> 00:08:11.629 the case may be here. Just insert whatever. So 00:08:11.629 --> 00:08:14.069 let's talk about the sensory processing between 00:08:14.069 --> 00:08:17.069 non -autistics versus the autistic phenotype, 00:08:17.490 --> 00:08:20.329 especially with reading. So the different brain 00:08:20.329 --> 00:08:23.230 waves or frequencies, neural oscillations and 00:08:23.230 --> 00:08:28.370 so forth. In non -autistics, V1 through V4 is 00:08:28.370 --> 00:08:32.629 operating at alpha waves and beta waves. Alpha 00:08:32.629 --> 00:08:36.350 helps you focus, like ignoring distractions while 00:08:36.350 --> 00:08:41.590 reading dog. Beta links the V1 to V4, ensuring 00:08:41.590 --> 00:08:46.389 those letter shapes come together smoothly. EEG 00:08:46.389 --> 00:08:49.789 picks up alpha suppression when you're engaged, 00:08:50.529 --> 00:08:54.269 while MEG shows beta connections between visual 00:08:54.269 --> 00:08:59.929 areas. Gamma waves over 30 Hz are there too, 00:09:00.110 --> 00:09:03.450 but they're less dominant, helping fine -tune 00:09:03.450 --> 00:09:07.690 details, like making sure the O in dog isn't 00:09:07.690 --> 00:09:13.049 a C. Unlike in autism where gamma waves go into 00:09:13.049 --> 00:09:16.169 overdrive, non -autistic brains keep a balance 00:09:16.169 --> 00:09:19.610 mixed, ensuring efficient processing without 00:09:19.610 --> 00:09:24.210 getting stuck on every detail. FMRI supports 00:09:24.210 --> 00:09:28.110 this by showing steady activation in V1 through 00:09:28.110 --> 00:09:33.970 V4, not the hyperactivity in autism. In the autistic 00:09:33.970 --> 00:09:38.129 phenotype, it's mostly or completely entirely 00:09:38.129 --> 00:09:42.889 all gamma waves. This is the so -called heightened. 00:09:43.230 --> 00:09:45.690 So let's start making sense of what the eyes, 00:09:45.850 --> 00:09:48.850 the retinas are sending back to the rest of the 00:09:48.850 --> 00:09:52.730 brain, starting in the occipital lobe. The visual 00:09:52.730 --> 00:09:57.110 word form area in the occipital temporal cortex 00:09:57.110 --> 00:10:01.129 recognizes letters and words as visual patterns, 00:10:02.210 --> 00:10:05.370 acting like a pattern detector to identify familiar 00:10:05.370 --> 00:10:09.889 shapes and sequences, such as distinguishing 00:10:09.889 --> 00:10:17.009 dog from bog, the temporal parietal cortex, including 00:10:17.009 --> 00:10:20.769 the superior temporal gyrus. And the angular 00:10:20.769 --> 00:10:25.750 gyrus maps these visual forms to sound, enabling 00:10:25.750 --> 00:10:30.029 mental or vocal pronunciation, like sounding 00:10:30.029 --> 00:10:37.230 out dog as dog. The inferior frontal gyrus, which 00:10:37.230 --> 00:10:40.889 does include Broca, we're not limiting this area 00:10:40.889 --> 00:10:45.149 to just Broca. However, it does include two more 00:10:45.149 --> 00:10:48.830 little nuclei involved in this process, involved 00:10:48.830 --> 00:10:53.659 with integrating word meanings akin to a storytelling 00:10:53.659 --> 00:10:57.080 piece to gather a narrative to understand that 00:10:57.080 --> 00:11:01.899 dog refers to a pet these regions are linked 00:11:01.899 --> 00:11:05.639 by the arcuate fasciculus a white matter track 00:11:05.639 --> 00:11:10.580 facilitating communication for phonological and 00:11:10.580 --> 00:11:15.039 semantic processing that ensures seamless coordination 00:11:15.039 --> 00:11:18.179 if you remember the speech and language episode 00:11:18.279 --> 00:11:22.620 We spent a lot of time on the arcuate fasciculus. 00:11:22.620 --> 00:11:26.039 It's a white matter track connecting Varanaki 00:11:26.039 --> 00:11:30.259 and Broca. Remember, these are two distal areas. 00:11:30.679 --> 00:11:34.460 Functional magnetic resonance imaging measures 00:11:34.460 --> 00:11:39.080 blood flow to pinpoint active regions, showing 00:11:39.080 --> 00:11:44.720 robust visual word form area activation for word 00:11:44.720 --> 00:11:50.220 recognition. coming at 150 to 200 milliseconds. 00:11:50.820 --> 00:11:58.919 And this is using an N170 for EEGs or M170 for 00:11:58.919 --> 00:12:01.720 MEGs. These are the same instruments we talked 00:12:01.720 --> 00:12:06.480 about in part two of the sensory processing episode. 00:12:06.940 --> 00:12:11.360 Same stuff. EEGs capture electric brain activity 00:12:11.360 --> 00:12:15.100 with millisecond precision. and this detects 00:12:15.100 --> 00:12:20.340 rapid neural responses like N170 for visual processing 00:12:20.340 --> 00:12:25.580 and 400 so roughly 400 milliseconds for the meaning. 00:12:26.460 --> 00:12:30.539 MEGs measure magnetic fields and this offers 00:12:30.539 --> 00:12:33.799 precise timing and moderate spatial resolution 00:12:33.799 --> 00:12:37.940 so within two to five millimeters to map connectivity 00:12:37.940 --> 00:12:42.940 between the visual word form area and the superior 00:12:43.259 --> 00:12:48.919 temporal gyrus. The temporal parietal lobe handled 00:12:48.919 --> 00:12:52.600 phonological processing roughly 200 to 300 milliseconds 00:12:52.600 --> 00:12:58.299 and the IFG, the inferior frontal gyrus, supports 00:12:58.299 --> 00:13:01.600 the semantic integration happening roughly at 00:13:01.600 --> 00:13:05.700 300 to 500 milliseconds. The dual stream model, 00:13:06.259 --> 00:13:08.620 the so -called dual stream model here, includes 00:13:08.620 --> 00:13:13.139 a ventral stream. This includes the VWFA and 00:13:13.139 --> 00:13:17.960 the semantics for familiar words, like instantly 00:13:17.960 --> 00:13:22.960 recognizing dog, and a dorsal strain, that temporal 00:13:22.960 --> 00:13:29.340 parietal for phonology, for decoding new, and 00:13:29.340 --> 00:13:34.539 pseudo words. Hard stop. The pseudo word, for 00:13:34.539 --> 00:13:38.600 example, zob. We will discuss this a little bit. 00:13:38.639 --> 00:13:42.220 But you should know that pseudo words are very 00:13:42.220 --> 00:13:45.899 common in achievement type tests given to mostly 00:13:45.899 --> 00:13:49.779 kids. These are things like the Wyatt Ford, the 00:13:49.779 --> 00:13:55.279 Weschler Individual Achievement Test or the KTEA, 00:13:55.480 --> 00:13:59.960 the Kauffman Test of Educational Achievement. 00:14:00.759 --> 00:14:04.659 These are very common types of tests used in 00:14:04.659 --> 00:14:08.809 psychological assessments or school assessments, 00:14:09.210 --> 00:14:13.230 school placement type of activities here. Diffusion 00:14:13.230 --> 00:14:17.250 tensor imaging, DTI, also talked about in the 00:14:17.250 --> 00:14:19.929 part two of the sensory processing episode, reveals 00:14:19.929 --> 00:14:25.470 higher fractional anisotropy in the arcuate fasciculus, 00:14:25.710 --> 00:14:28.649 indicating a strong connectivity here, which 00:14:28.649 --> 00:14:31.750 predicts reading fluency. So in other words, 00:14:32.230 --> 00:14:34.809 the higher this connection here, the better the 00:14:34.809 --> 00:14:38.019 reading fluency. So it might be a good time here 00:14:38.019 --> 00:14:41.259 to kind of describe this fractional anastrosophy. 00:14:42.360 --> 00:14:44.659 Here on after I'm going to call this FA. It's 00:14:44.659 --> 00:14:48.360 just easier. This is, I'm going to give some 00:14:48.360 --> 00:14:51.500 easy to understand examples here. This is measuring 00:14:51.500 --> 00:14:56.399 water. The DTI diffusion tensor imaging is measuring 00:14:56.399 --> 00:15:00.820 water. Diffusion is just nerd speak for movement. 00:15:01.779 --> 00:15:04.379 So how water is moving throughout the brain is 00:15:04.379 --> 00:15:07.149 what this is doing. with these different connections, 00:15:07.389 --> 00:15:10.029 even distal connections, we talked about myelin. 00:15:10.330 --> 00:15:13.049 Myelin being like a, the difference in myelin, 00:15:13.169 --> 00:15:16.190 well myelination, like driving on an interstate 00:15:16.190 --> 00:15:20.049 versus a gravel road. FA, it's measuring this 00:15:20.049 --> 00:15:24.029 number. One is optimal, like massive amounts 00:15:24.029 --> 00:15:27.929 of water flow. Zero is no good. There's some 00:15:27.929 --> 00:15:30.990 disruption going on. So like the gravel road. 00:15:31.610 --> 00:15:34.919 So the higher, the better. And if you think about 00:15:34.919 --> 00:15:37.940 the myelin being straws, straws having a good 00:15:37.940 --> 00:15:41.440 water flow, but if there are kinks in the straws 00:15:41.440 --> 00:15:45.159 or the straws are narrow versus wide straws, 00:15:45.159 --> 00:15:47.340 there's going to be a disruption of water flow. 00:15:48.059 --> 00:15:51.440 If you think about garden hose, if you have kinks 00:15:51.440 --> 00:15:53.820 in the garden hose, the water coming out at the 00:15:53.820 --> 00:15:58.440 end is massively implicated. The pressure and 00:15:58.440 --> 00:16:02.149 water flow here is very weak. It's very frustrating 00:16:02.149 --> 00:16:06.149 if you're using a garden hose and that's delaying. 00:16:06.149 --> 00:16:08.649 It's delaying this distal connection in the brain. 00:16:09.389 --> 00:16:13.129 So those receiving regions post -synaptic connections 00:16:13.129 --> 00:16:16.149 and so forth are delayed and we've talked about 00:16:16.149 --> 00:16:18.950 this in the sensory processing where the earlier 00:16:18.950 --> 00:16:23.129 stops are heightened but the distal connections 00:16:23.129 --> 00:16:27.360 are kind of slowed or impaired. And this is going 00:16:27.360 --> 00:16:30.440 to come into play later when we talk about autistics 00:16:30.440 --> 00:16:33.779 reading and that heightened visual processing 00:16:33.779 --> 00:16:40.120 and dyslexics having a weakened FA with these 00:16:40.120 --> 00:16:42.559 distal connections. It's going to all make sense 00:16:42.559 --> 00:16:47.039 I hope. Silent reading involves something called 00:16:47.039 --> 00:16:51.639 subvocalization or silently speaking. Readers 00:16:51.639 --> 00:16:56.000 here internally articulate words. engaging in 00:16:56.000 --> 00:17:01.480 phonological areas with less of the IFG activating 00:17:01.480 --> 00:17:06.119 than oral reading, which recruits the pre and 00:17:06.119 --> 00:17:09.980 post -central gyri for motor coordination and 00:17:09.980 --> 00:17:13.519 speech production. Now we are silently speaking 00:17:13.519 --> 00:17:17.420 to ourselves when we are reading because we are 00:17:17.420 --> 00:17:21.440 speaking up to the cortex and other strong areas 00:17:21.440 --> 00:17:24.650 of the brain. we are teaching ourselves what 00:17:24.650 --> 00:17:29.329 is being read. This is a huge part with learning. 00:17:29.950 --> 00:17:33.089 The overall goal of this network here is to efficiently 00:17:33.089 --> 00:17:37.910 decode the text and convert it into sound and 00:17:37.910 --> 00:17:42.250 derive meaning, enabling fluent reading measured 00:17:42.250 --> 00:17:47.470 as words per minute. So either way, reading to 00:17:47.470 --> 00:17:52.329 the cell or out loud, you are essentially Speaking. 00:17:53.930 --> 00:17:57.150 So let's break down the reading process. Step 00:17:57.150 --> 00:18:01.049 one is we are decoding something called orthographic 00:18:01.049 --> 00:18:06.049 processing. And this involves the VWFA, that 00:18:06.049 --> 00:18:09.970 visual word form area, to identify letters and 00:18:09.970 --> 00:18:13.569 words as those visual patterns, like recognizing 00:18:13.569 --> 00:18:17.829 book on a page as familiar shape occurring within 00:18:17.829 --> 00:18:24.609 150 to 200 milliseconds. FMRI shows that this 00:18:24.609 --> 00:18:30.450 VWFA activation and EEG captures the rapid electrical 00:18:30.450 --> 00:18:34.650 spike and the MEG localizes it to the occipital 00:18:34.650 --> 00:18:38.329 temporal cortex. Remember from the Sensory Processing 00:18:38.329 --> 00:18:42.309 Part 2 episode, EEGs are much better at kind 00:18:42.309 --> 00:18:46.990 of local distinguishing, local findings and so 00:18:46.990 --> 00:18:51.500 forth and EEGs are much easier to use. less dangerous 00:18:51.500 --> 00:18:56.539 even. However, MEGs are better for distal connections, 00:18:56.819 --> 00:19:00.200 kind of spotlighting the whole brain to see what 00:19:00.200 --> 00:19:05.200 is all active. The VWFA's goal is to quickly 00:19:05.200 --> 00:19:09.740 and accurately process visual word forms, preparing 00:19:09.740 --> 00:19:13.240 the brain for sound and meaning. This is step 00:19:13.240 --> 00:19:16.700 one. So what does processing visual word forms 00:19:16.700 --> 00:19:21.000 mean? This involves the brain's ability to recognize 00:19:21.000 --> 00:19:24.240 and interpret written words as visual patterns, 00:19:24.799 --> 00:19:28.299 a key step in reading. This process primarily 00:19:28.299 --> 00:19:32.980 engages the VWFA for the initial recognition, 00:19:33.579 --> 00:19:36.519 identifying letters and words. This is going 00:19:36.519 --> 00:19:40.839 to be orchestrated by this rapid visual processing 00:19:40.839 --> 00:19:43.759 that relies on the brain's ability to match that 00:19:43.759 --> 00:19:49.519 visual input. stored to the orthographic representations. 00:19:50.700 --> 00:19:53.660 Does the brain recognize this sequence of letters, 00:19:53.980 --> 00:19:56.480 this sequence of letters that make up this word? 00:19:57.119 --> 00:20:00.839 Does the brain recognize this? The role in reading 00:20:00.839 --> 00:20:03.579 here is huge. This step prepares the brain for 00:20:03.579 --> 00:20:08.099 subsequent phonological mapping and the semantic 00:20:08.099 --> 00:20:12.720 integration. This is like step one. If your dominoes 00:20:12.720 --> 00:20:16.420 are off and the first domino is off, The second, 00:20:16.519 --> 00:20:18.759 third, fourth, everything downstream is going 00:20:18.759 --> 00:20:24.059 to be delayed. And this is facilitated by the 00:20:24.059 --> 00:20:28.000 arcuate fasciculus. Once again, so the arcuate 00:20:28.000 --> 00:20:31.900 fasciculus is involved in reading and speaking. 00:20:33.220 --> 00:20:37.940 In fluent readers, this VWFA enables automatic 00:20:37.940 --> 00:20:41.700 word form processing. It automates it. This is 00:20:41.700 --> 00:20:43.500 what the central nervous system is trying to 00:20:43.500 --> 00:20:47.950 do with everything. And this contributes to efficient 00:20:47.950 --> 00:20:52.529 decoding. So some disruptions in this, for instance 00:20:52.529 --> 00:20:57.990 in dyslexia, the VWFA is underactive and this 00:20:57.990 --> 00:21:02.269 leads to delayed N170 and impaired word recognition. 00:21:03.490 --> 00:21:08.450 However, the data for autism shows hyperactivity 00:21:08.450 --> 00:21:13.369 of the VWFA and that bilateral activation reflect 00:21:13.369 --> 00:21:18.579 a visual spatial bias, and enhances the decoding 00:21:18.579 --> 00:21:23.920 speed, but not always comprehension due to the 00:21:23.920 --> 00:21:27.059 frontotemporal under -connectivity. We've talked 00:21:27.059 --> 00:21:30.619 about this a lot with autism, those heightened 00:21:30.619 --> 00:21:34.720 connections early in processes, but then downstream, 00:21:35.599 --> 00:21:38.400 it gets delayed, it gets disrupted, those more 00:21:38.400 --> 00:21:42.460 distal connections. And you should not be surprised 00:21:42.460 --> 00:21:46.519 here with this hyperactivity of the visual word 00:21:46.519 --> 00:21:50.660 form area because of the visual processing, those 00:21:50.660 --> 00:21:56.200 high rates of speed with visual processing. Another 00:21:56.200 --> 00:22:01.599 area from the Reza Shadmir episode, the cerebellar. 00:22:01.960 --> 00:22:04.380 This is a very underrated area and we'll talk 00:22:04.380 --> 00:22:08.299 a lot about the cerebellum today. Purkinje cells 00:22:08.299 --> 00:22:11.599 in the cerebellum refine the timing and coordination 00:22:11.599 --> 00:22:15.240 of the eye movements. These are often called 00:22:15.240 --> 00:22:19.920 saccades. In needing to scan word forms, this 00:22:19.920 --> 00:22:22.579 is what it's trying to accomplish here. With 00:22:22.579 --> 00:22:27.160 climbing fiber afferents, correcting errors in 00:22:27.160 --> 00:22:31.119 real time, and parallel fibers integrating visual 00:22:31.119 --> 00:22:35.680 cues. In dysfunction, as seen in the autistic 00:22:35.680 --> 00:22:40.859 phenotype, with progeny cells, 25 to 50 percent 00:22:40.859 --> 00:22:45.059 cell loss in the autistic phenotype. for Purkinje 00:22:45.059 --> 00:22:50.299 cells, and in dyslexia, there's a disruption 00:22:50.299 --> 00:22:54.480 of this precise affecting fluent word form processing. 00:22:55.940 --> 00:22:59.339 So this process is foundational to reading, linking 00:22:59.339 --> 00:23:03.839 the visual input to the sound and meaning through 00:23:03.839 --> 00:23:08.539 a coordinated neural network. This is not about 00:23:08.539 --> 00:23:12.240 turning the word into visual thinking. It is 00:23:12.240 --> 00:23:15.039 about seeing the pattern of the letters for reading 00:23:15.039 --> 00:23:21.460 the word. So spelling difficulties. This is an 00:23:21.460 --> 00:23:25.799 area of interest here for us. Particularly if 00:23:25.799 --> 00:23:28.779 you remember from the Kanner kids and Asperger 00:23:28.779 --> 00:23:33.640 kids, as well as those with dyslexia and or the 00:23:33.640 --> 00:23:37.380 autistic phenotype as a whole, are best explained 00:23:37.380 --> 00:23:40.890 by challenges in the orthographic processing 00:23:40.890 --> 00:23:44.869 phase here with additional contributions from 00:23:44.869 --> 00:23:49.930 related stage and neural networks. The primary 00:23:49.930 --> 00:23:53.390 point in spelling is the orthographic processing 00:23:53.390 --> 00:23:57.250 and this is occurring. This phase that involves 00:23:57.250 --> 00:24:01.089 the visual word form area for the decoding process. 00:24:01.430 --> 00:24:04.190 Now if you think about it, think about that hyperactivity 00:24:04.190 --> 00:24:08.019 and autism. With autism, you know about that 00:24:08.019 --> 00:24:11.519 black and white thinking as well. This hyperactive 00:24:11.519 --> 00:24:17.259 VWFA with that bilateral activation, this leads 00:24:17.259 --> 00:24:22.079 to a hyper -focus on spelling, but a poor integration 00:24:22.079 --> 00:24:27.799 with phonology or semantics due to that frontotemporal 00:24:27.799 --> 00:24:32.000 under -connectivity. Again, more of the Purgenje 00:24:32.000 --> 00:24:36.079 cells are involved here, and... an area that 00:24:36.079 --> 00:24:38.940 we've recently discussed over the last winter 00:24:38.940 --> 00:24:43.160 in several episodes the dorsal striatum the dorsal 00:24:43.160 --> 00:24:46.740 striatum is our input area of the basal ganglia 00:24:46.740 --> 00:24:50.119 i know a lot of a lot of regions here a lot of 00:24:50.119 --> 00:24:53.299 different brain regions here but they're all 00:24:53.299 --> 00:24:56.559 very important and fascinating the dorsal striatum 00:24:56.559 --> 00:25:00.480 is the input areas of the basal ganglia in other 00:25:00.480 --> 00:25:05.029 words this is what's going to coordinate or conduct 00:25:05.029 --> 00:25:08.450 the downstream movements remember the basal ganglia 00:25:08.450 --> 00:25:12.630 is go and no -go area and two big things here 00:25:12.630 --> 00:25:15.650 with the dorsal striatum is it's heavily involved 00:25:15.650 --> 00:25:22.130 in learning and goal -directed activity and habitual 00:25:22.130 --> 00:25:26.609 responses remember autism and those habitual 00:25:26.609 --> 00:25:30.890 responses or the lack of adaptive responses we 00:25:30.890 --> 00:25:35.640 can get caught up on things very easily. A second 00:25:35.640 --> 00:25:37.819 consideration for spelling difficulties here 00:25:37.819 --> 00:25:42.400 is following the orthographic recognition, which 00:25:42.400 --> 00:25:46.019 is the phonological processing. This is involved 00:25:46.019 --> 00:25:49.859 with that temporal parietal cortex, the superior 00:25:49.859 --> 00:25:52.920 temporal gyrus and the angular gyrus, those two 00:25:52.920 --> 00:25:56.700 specific areas. This maps spellings to sounds. 00:25:58.640 --> 00:26:02.460 disruption of the cerebellar timing via the purgenji 00:26:02.460 --> 00:26:06.720 cells affect broca area for articulation and 00:26:06.720 --> 00:26:09.759 this can hinder spelling by sound and this leads 00:26:09.759 --> 00:26:14.839 to phonetic misspellings for example here phone 00:26:14.839 --> 00:26:21.160 f -o -n -e for phone it's very confusing the 00:26:21.160 --> 00:26:23.660 Kenner kids were so funny with this if you read 00:26:23.660 --> 00:26:27.559 the Leo Kenner 1943 paper Another region of interest 00:26:27.559 --> 00:26:30.940 is the arcuate fasciculus. This track reduces 00:26:30.940 --> 00:26:34.500 with that F -A in dyslexia, remember that water 00:26:34.500 --> 00:26:38.259 flow, and with the autistic phenotype, the connection 00:26:38.259 --> 00:26:41.880 between phonological output, the Broca's area, 00:26:42.319 --> 00:26:46.299 and comprehension, Ferenke's area. This disrupting 00:26:46.299 --> 00:26:49.220 the feedback loop. All of these things are basically 00:26:49.220 --> 00:26:52.440 running in a loop updating each other. And this 00:26:52.440 --> 00:26:55.410 is needed to verify spelling correctness. In 00:26:55.410 --> 00:26:58.450 the Autistic Phenotype, under -connectivity further 00:26:58.450 --> 00:27:02.470 complicates integrating spelling rules. There's 00:27:02.470 --> 00:27:06.329 a downstream area here for the semantic integration 00:27:06.329 --> 00:27:09.130 we haven't discussed yet, but with spelling, 00:27:09.589 --> 00:27:12.950 it's important to mention this now. That inferior 00:27:12.950 --> 00:27:16.390 frontal gyrus, remember including the broca area, 00:27:16.650 --> 00:27:20.430 links spellings to meaning. But this is delayed 00:27:20.430 --> 00:27:24.220 using N400 in the Autistic Phenotype. so roughly 00:27:24.220 --> 00:27:27.900 400 milliseconds this is supposed to come online 00:27:27.900 --> 00:27:31.339 but that is due to the frontotemporal deficit 00:27:31.339 --> 00:27:35.019 that under connectivity in dyslexia there's an 00:27:35.019 --> 00:27:37.980 over activation and this can lead to semantic 00:27:37.980 --> 00:27:41.859 based spelling errors the examples here are something 00:27:41.859 --> 00:27:48.880 like there t -h -e -i -r for there t -h -e -r 00:27:48.880 --> 00:27:53.960 -e when meaning is more important than Orthography. 00:27:55.220 --> 00:27:59.539 Okay, so meaning is more important in this situation 00:27:59.539 --> 00:28:03.660 than the orthography part. Spelling difficulties 00:28:03.660 --> 00:28:06.920 indicate kind of a bottleneck in the orthographic 00:28:06.920 --> 00:28:11.079 encoding, often exacerbated by the cerebellar 00:28:11.079 --> 00:28:15.380 cortical loop disruptions. I remember in the 00:28:15.380 --> 00:28:18.799 third grade, anecdotal time I guess, I remember 00:28:18.799 --> 00:28:24.900 spelling movie. M -O -V -E. And I got it wrong, 00:28:24.980 --> 00:28:29.759 of course. M -O -V -I -E. And I just remember 00:28:29.759 --> 00:28:33.039 sitting there thinking, looking at movie. M -O 00:28:33.039 --> 00:28:36.680 -V -E is like, no, that's right. I was just completely 00:28:36.680 --> 00:28:39.960 lost. It doesn't make any sense. If you find 00:28:39.960 --> 00:28:42.359 yourself easily confusing and getting stuck on 00:28:42.359 --> 00:28:47.200 words like accept and expert while reading, or 00:28:47.200 --> 00:28:53.220 words like expectation, extinction or extermination 00:28:53.220 --> 00:28:56.400 like I do all of those words kind of look the 00:28:56.400 --> 00:29:00.539 same I still get caught up on this even at 45 00:29:00.539 --> 00:29:03.920 years old this is likely happening at the orthographic 00:29:03.920 --> 00:29:07.779 processing phase with potential considerations 00:29:07.779 --> 00:29:11.859 contributions from subsequent stages we have 00:29:11.859 --> 00:29:14.559 all of these words spelled the same but have 00:29:14.559 --> 00:29:19.319 multiple meanings or Said the same with different 00:29:19.319 --> 00:29:24.079 spellings. Many different if -then rules in language. 00:29:25.579 --> 00:29:30.200 I just cannot unsee Genesis 11, 1 -9 now. Especially 00:29:30.200 --> 00:29:34.420 verse 9. And that's in large part thanks to Veritas. 00:29:35.279 --> 00:29:39.240 At 44 Veritas on X. He really captured that for 00:29:39.240 --> 00:29:43.359 me. The Tower of Babel. And it's just Babel. 00:29:43.619 --> 00:29:47.049 Humans love Babel. A primary point here with 00:29:47.049 --> 00:29:53.309 that example like except and expert. White confusion 00:29:53.309 --> 00:29:56.230 occurs here with the similar letter patterns. 00:29:57.049 --> 00:30:05.869 Except EXCEPT and expert EXPERT share initial 00:30:05.869 --> 00:30:10.130 letters EX. This can lead to visually similarity 00:30:10.130 --> 00:30:14.690 confusion if the FWVA struggles to distinguish. 00:30:14.920 --> 00:30:20.359 subtle differences and both words have a downstream 00:30:20.359 --> 00:30:28.099 E P and T very confusing for people like me. 00:30:28.599 --> 00:30:31.960 This could indicate under activation or the inefficiency 00:30:31.960 --> 00:30:37.440 in that visual word form area as seen in dyslexia 00:30:37.440 --> 00:30:41.079 where they have a delayed N170 which reflects 00:30:41.079 --> 00:30:46.309 impaired word form recognition. And getting stuck 00:30:46.309 --> 00:30:49.670 is difficult with processing beyond these words. 00:30:50.069 --> 00:30:52.430 Often whenever I'm reading and I come across 00:30:52.430 --> 00:30:55.849 a word like this, I just get stuck. This is likely 00:30:55.849 --> 00:30:59.089 a bottleneck in the decoding, possibly due to 00:30:59.089 --> 00:31:02.109 erratic eye movements or those saccades, influenced 00:31:02.109 --> 00:31:05.269 by cerebellar Pugigi cells, that dysfunction, 00:31:05.750 --> 00:31:09.450 and also remember the superior colliculus, which 00:31:09.450 --> 00:31:12.349 projects up to the frontal eye fields of the 00:31:12.349 --> 00:31:16.289 sensory motor area. top middle of your brain 00:31:16.289 --> 00:31:20.069 cortex area. This is heavily involved in kind 00:31:20.069 --> 00:31:23.289 of modulating eye movements. Sometimes those 00:31:23.289 --> 00:31:26.190 letters in the letter sequencing that form a 00:31:26.190 --> 00:31:30.329 word are very challenging. It's all due to that 00:31:30.329 --> 00:31:34.309 rapid visual processing and in combination with 00:31:34.309 --> 00:31:40.029 the lack of progeny cells. If the FWVA fails 00:31:40.029 --> 00:31:43.869 to quickly disambiguate these orthographic forms, 00:31:44.109 --> 00:31:47.269 it will delay this process especially if the 00:31:47.269 --> 00:31:49.609 dorsal striatum involved with that procedural 00:31:49.609 --> 00:31:53.930 learning and the habitual word recognition because 00:31:53.930 --> 00:31:56.509 remember the brain is predicting so it's anticipating 00:31:56.509 --> 00:32:01.750 what this word might be versus what it is so 00:32:01.750 --> 00:32:04.549 that wraps up the decoding or the orthographic 00:32:04.549 --> 00:32:09.349 processing which is a very large and very complex 00:32:09.349 --> 00:32:12.930 first step so the next step the second step in 00:32:12.930 --> 00:32:15.940 reading is phonological processing. We've touched 00:32:15.940 --> 00:32:18.220 on it a little bit with explaining the different 00:32:18.220 --> 00:32:21.660 kind of phenomenas associated with reading, but 00:32:21.660 --> 00:32:24.440 this is going to what phonological processing 00:32:24.440 --> 00:32:28.180 is really trying to accomplish. And this is including 00:32:28.180 --> 00:32:31.559 that temporal parietal cortex and the superior 00:32:31.559 --> 00:32:35.539 temporal gyrus and the angular gyrus. So this 00:32:35.539 --> 00:32:38.039 is mapping visual words to their sounds, like 00:32:38.039 --> 00:32:42.019 mentally pronouncing book as book. This is like 00:32:42.019 --> 00:32:44.700 a translator converting text to speech in your 00:32:44.700 --> 00:32:48.140 head. This is occurring at roughly 200 to 300 00:32:48.140 --> 00:32:53.220 milliseconds in EEGs and MEGs. And the fMRI highlights 00:32:53.220 --> 00:32:59.099 STG and AG activation. The magnetic form measurement, 00:32:59.380 --> 00:33:03.420 the MEG, shows arcuate fasciculus mediated connectivity 00:33:03.420 --> 00:33:09.500 to the FWVA. And the EEG tracks the timing. The 00:33:09.500 --> 00:33:13.019 goal here is to link visual input to phonological 00:33:13.019 --> 00:33:17.940 output, enabling pronunciation and aiding with 00:33:17.940 --> 00:33:23.160 the comprehension. So here comes the sound. In 00:33:23.160 --> 00:33:26.059 phonological processing, the focus shifts to 00:33:26.059 --> 00:33:29.759 mapping the recognized word forms. Remember with 00:33:29.759 --> 00:33:33.119 the predicting and reading, visualizing the words, 00:33:33.839 --> 00:33:36.839 the letter sequencing, to their corresponding 00:33:36.839 --> 00:33:40.519 sounds and initiating the groundwork for speech. 00:33:40.720 --> 00:33:43.500 We're building up a foundation here to speak. 00:33:44.599 --> 00:33:47.160 This process primarily involves the temporal 00:33:47.160 --> 00:33:51.779 parietal cortex. And we can speak this or we 00:33:51.779 --> 00:33:57.119 can silently speak this up to our cortex. Remember 00:33:57.119 --> 00:34:01.559 the Reza Shadmir episode. For speech, this sets 00:34:01.559 --> 00:34:04.619 the stage for articulary planning in Broca's 00:34:04.619 --> 00:34:08.760 area. which coordinates tongue and speech movements. 00:34:10.039 --> 00:34:13.280 This is why I mentioned Dr. Shadmere again because 00:34:13.280 --> 00:34:17.719 the Purgenji cells are involved in slowing the 00:34:17.719 --> 00:34:20.679 tongue down. And this was shown in his recent 00:34:20.679 --> 00:34:27.159 paper. The Purgenji cells refine timing and accuracy 00:34:27.159 --> 00:34:31.039 while sounds and speech begin to form here. Actual 00:34:31.039 --> 00:34:33.780 vocalization, the speech requires further motor 00:34:33.780 --> 00:34:38.199 execution. during reading aloud. But before that 00:34:38.199 --> 00:34:42.039 we must have the semantic integration. The inferior 00:34:42.039 --> 00:34:46.059 frontal gyrus. Remember Broca. A lot of people 00:34:46.059 --> 00:34:48.980 know about Broca. This connects words to their 00:34:48.980 --> 00:34:52.179 meanings. Like understanding book as a reading 00:34:52.179 --> 00:34:56.920 object. This is akin to the library finding the 00:34:56.920 --> 00:35:00.199 right story. And this is occurring at 300 to 00:35:00.199 --> 00:35:07.489 500 milliseconds. on EEGs or MEGs. fMRI reveals 00:35:07.489 --> 00:35:11.090 this activation of the inferior frontal gyrus 00:35:11.090 --> 00:35:15.630 and the EEG tracks meaning processing while the 00:35:15.630 --> 00:35:19.889 MEG maps frontotemporal connections. The goal 00:35:19.889 --> 00:35:23.550 here is to build coherent understanding especially 00:35:23.550 --> 00:35:30.190 for the complex or abstract text. So silently 00:35:30.429 --> 00:35:33.829 speaking, that so -called sub -vocalization. 00:35:34.750 --> 00:35:38.889 In silent reading, readers internally articulate 00:35:38.889 --> 00:35:42.610 words like silent, saying, book, while doing 00:35:42.610 --> 00:35:46.489 the reading. This engages the superior temporal 00:35:46.489 --> 00:35:51.769 gyrus and the angular gyrus. While the fMRI shows 00:35:51.769 --> 00:35:56.429 the temporal parietal activation, MEG confirms 00:35:56.429 --> 00:36:00.349 that articulate fasciculus connectivity. The 00:36:00.349 --> 00:36:03.949 goal here is to reinforce phonological processing, 00:36:04.590 --> 00:36:07.409 aiding comprehension by linking visual words 00:36:07.409 --> 00:36:12.289 to their auditory forms without overt speech. 00:36:13.110 --> 00:36:16.489 And a big thing here is we are teaching ourselves. 00:36:16.670 --> 00:36:19.429 We are speaking up and teaching ourselves like 00:36:19.429 --> 00:36:23.010 professing. And this is a big form of learning, 00:36:23.369 --> 00:36:26.869 reading out loud. This extends silently reading 00:36:26.869 --> 00:36:30.619 to vocalization of the speech. requiring motor 00:36:30.619 --> 00:36:35.179 areas to articulate words and manage porosity, 00:36:35.800 --> 00:36:39.860 like reading a book aloud with proper tone. FMRI 00:36:39.860 --> 00:36:43.500 shows increased motor and inferior frontal gyrus 00:36:43.500 --> 00:36:48.260 activation. EEG captures motor related signals 00:36:48.260 --> 00:36:53.360 and the MEG tracks articulation timing. The goal 00:36:53.360 --> 00:36:57.630 here is to produce accurate and fluid speech 00:36:57.630 --> 00:37:00.969 while maintaining comprehension. So let's put 00:37:00.969 --> 00:37:03.989 some oscillations on this part of the process 00:37:03.989 --> 00:37:11.809 here. In the VWFA, autistic phenotypes spot words 00:37:11.809 --> 00:37:15.409 much faster. This is shown with that EEG MEG 00:37:15.409 --> 00:37:19.309 and that hyperactivation in fMRI. The delta here 00:37:19.309 --> 00:37:23.610 is autistics process this in gamma waves while 00:37:24.090 --> 00:37:27.010 Alpha and beta waves are used for non -autistic 00:37:27.010 --> 00:37:30.610 brains. Making visual processing extra detailed, 00:37:31.010 --> 00:37:35.030 sometimes we have called it heightened. But the 00:37:35.030 --> 00:37:38.489 connection to the inferior frontal gyrus, the 00:37:38.489 --> 00:37:43.570 storyteller, that Broca region, is weak. MEG 00:37:43.570 --> 00:37:48.409 shows low alpha and beta coherence, and EEG catches 00:37:48.409 --> 00:37:54.769 a delayed N400, meaning comprehension lags. Especially 00:37:54.769 --> 00:37:58.170 for abstract stories. This should be all making 00:37:58.170 --> 00:38:01.949 sense to you how autistics have difficulty with 00:38:01.949 --> 00:38:04.750 that downstream sensory processing and making 00:38:04.750 --> 00:38:08.050 sense of things and needing to catch up. We might 00:38:08.050 --> 00:38:11.250 have a hard time keeping up in social situations 00:38:11.250 --> 00:38:14.010 and remember the speech and language episode 00:38:14.010 --> 00:38:16.869 with the two different types of of echolalia. 00:38:17.610 --> 00:38:20.809 The two different sources kind of of echolalia. 00:38:21.150 --> 00:38:25.369 One is keeping up. So you must repeat it. This 00:38:25.369 --> 00:38:27.909 should be all making sense to you, but I don't 00:38:27.909 --> 00:38:31.269 think people understand this. Especially with 00:38:31.269 --> 00:38:34.210 assessing the Autistic Phenotype. This is heavily 00:38:34.210 --> 00:38:37.829 missed, and I'm telling you that. I know that. 00:38:38.250 --> 00:38:41.309 And it should be no surprise here that Articulociculus, 00:38:41.550 --> 00:38:44.949 that brain highway, remember with the FA measuring 00:38:44.949 --> 00:38:49.389 water, has reduced strength. It is a gravel road. 00:38:49.449 --> 00:38:54.340 It is a kinked water hose. From point A to point 00:38:54.340 --> 00:38:59.039 B destination example. Let's just use this analogy 00:38:59.039 --> 00:39:02.099 that we've mapped out here. There's a destination 00:39:02.099 --> 00:39:05.400 point A to point B and there's five stops for 00:39:05.400 --> 00:39:08.400 the autistic phenotype. Maybe the first two stops 00:39:08.400 --> 00:39:12.239 come fast versus the non -autistic, but the next 00:39:12.239 --> 00:39:16.739 three are delayed while the non -autistic gets 00:39:16.739 --> 00:39:21.079 there much smoother. I have something exciting. 00:39:21.260 --> 00:39:24.219 I want to introduce a product unlike any other 00:39:24.219 --> 00:39:28.920 product available. A highlight is the product 00:39:28.920 --> 00:39:32.639 from Daylight Computer Company created their 00:39:32.639 --> 00:39:36.699 product based on these factors. 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Chroma, a Seattle -based innovator 00:41:49.650 --> 00:41:54.550 founded by ex -NASA and Air Force engineer Michael 00:41:54.550 --> 00:41:59.090 Shapiro is on a mission to enhance physical and 00:41:59.090 --> 00:42:04.250 mental health with purpose -built devices, unlocking 00:42:04.250 --> 00:42:08.889 peak human health, cognitive function, and performance. 00:42:10.090 --> 00:42:12.969 Shapiro launched Chroma to restore the natural 00:42:12.969 --> 00:42:18.269 light lost to screens in indoor living and delivers 00:42:18.489 --> 00:42:22.369 faster recovery, sharper minds and better sleep. 00:42:23.349 --> 00:42:27.289 Their products hit hard. The Iron Forge speeds 00:42:27.289 --> 00:42:31.269 muscle repair with red and near -infrared light, 00:42:31.650 --> 00:42:36.090 while the Skylight mimics sunlight to boost sleep 00:42:36.090 --> 00:42:41.630 and energy. A standout, the Forge Lamp, is a 00:42:41.630 --> 00:42:47.550 portable gem that fires 660 nanometer and 850 00:42:47.659 --> 00:42:52.440 nanometer light to energize mitochondria and 00:42:52.440 --> 00:42:56.820 heal tissues on the go. Remember the four red 00:42:56.820 --> 00:43:00.380 light chromophores on cytochrome C oxidase frequently 00:43:00.380 --> 00:43:05.679 talked about in the podcast. This is why their 00:43:05.679 --> 00:43:09.099 products are built with military grade durability 00:43:09.099 --> 00:43:15.800 to have lasting impact. Chroma's tech fuses precision 00:43:15.800 --> 00:43:22.349 and power. gallium titride power supplies smaller 00:43:22.349 --> 00:43:26.949 cooler and stronger than silicon provide flicker 00:43:26.949 --> 00:43:31.070 free light that's easy on the eyes high -powered 00:43:31.070 --> 00:43:36.289 LEDs target key wavelengths for skin tissue and 00:43:36.289 --> 00:43:39.929 cellular health with smart heat management for 00:43:39.929 --> 00:43:44.090 the lasting impact every design decision chroma 00:43:44.090 --> 00:43:48.260 make serves a purpose to create devices that 00:43:48.260 --> 00:43:52.860 are precise, durable, and effective for improving 00:43:52.860 --> 00:43:57.760 human life. Remember, humans use different wavelengths 00:43:57.760 --> 00:44:03.179 of light for different functions of life. Remember 00:44:03.179 --> 00:44:10.320 when I ask, what do you think light is? Chroma 00:44:10.320 --> 00:44:15.219 designs with our biology in mind from sleep aids. 00:44:15.440 --> 00:44:20.139 and wound healing to mitochondrial energy, full 00:44:20.139 --> 00:44:22.920 body lights and blue light blocking glasses. 00:44:23.960 --> 00:44:28.380 They are US made and chroma ships globally and 00:44:28.380 --> 00:44:36.820 accepts FSA and HSA payments. Use autism at checkout 00:44:36.820 --> 00:44:43.579 for a 10 % off discount. That's autism at checkout. 00:44:43.880 --> 00:44:47.960 for a 10 % off discount. If you are listening 00:44:47.960 --> 00:44:50.900 to the podcast, listening to the episode, please 00:44:50.900 --> 00:44:54.380 feel free to leave a review or rating. In podcasting, 00:44:54.579 --> 00:44:57.059 reviews, ratings, and downloads are huge, and 00:44:57.059 --> 00:44:59.500 I very much appreciate your feedback. You can 00:44:59.500 --> 00:45:05.619 contact me on X at RPS 47586. We can discuss 00:45:05.619 --> 00:45:08.260 anything and everything about autism. I very 00:45:08.260 --> 00:45:11.159 much appreciate your comments and your interactions 00:45:11.159 --> 00:45:14.679 on X. You can check out the YouTube page for 00:45:14.679 --> 00:45:18.079 all the videos, full -length videos, shorts, 00:45:18.219 --> 00:45:23.820 and clips. You can email me info .fromthespectrum 00:45:23.820 --> 00:45:28.980 .gmail .com. Thank you for listening to From 00:45:28.980 --> 00:45:30.739 the Spectrum Podcast.