Before we begin this episode about reading, I
want to say there's lots of neurobiology, measurement
instruments, and brain waves, sometimes called
oscillations or frequencies. However, I will
hopefully provide easy -to -understand analogies.
We will go through the entire reading process
from the moment, light, hysterectomy, to formulating
speech. We will also compare so -called normal
readers, the autistic phenotype, and dyslexia,
and at times the odd contrast of the autistic
phenotype and dyslexia. Today's episode is all
about reading. We will discuss the reading process,
the neurobiology of course, a breakdown of visualizing
the text and transforming that into understanding.
comprehension, how to formulate that into speech.
You will find out if you don't already know we
use speech even when silently reading to ourselves.
100 % of autistics have a problem, some sort
of problem with speech and language. We will
also explore the spelling issues, why and how.
Some people, especially autistics, can get caught
up on reading fluency. We will discuss dyslexia
and several brain regions. Reading is a sophisticated
cognitive process that transforms written text
into meaning through a left -lateralized brain
network. Considering the autistic phenotypes
fast, sensory processing Let's start before the
brain even makes sense of the words. Which is
in the little neculi in the occipital temporal
lobe which is a combination of the occipital
and temporal lobes called visual word form area
VWFA We'll talk a lot about that later. Let's
start with the retina. When you look at a word
like dog on a page light hits your eyes. You
probably know about the rods and cones and then
the retinal ganglion cells that track back through
your thalamus. The thalamus is going to be a
first stop here, the lateral geniculate thalamus.
We talked about this with the oxytocin, the magnocellular
and parvocellular types of cell types used for
vision. Now also remember the lateral geniculate
is right there by the midbrain. It essentially
reaches out and high fives things like the superior
colliculus and so forth from the midbrain discussions.
So from the lateral geniculate, the optic nerve
to the primary visual cortex, which is V1 in
the back of your brain. V1 is active 50 to 100
milliseconds. This is like a sketch artist just
kind of mapping out the drawing and this is spotting
the lines and curves of the D or the O for the
dog example. EEG catches this spike and fMRI
shows the V1 lit up. MEG confirms it's the first
stop with precise timing. Next secondary visual
areas which is V2, V3, and V4 take over from
100 to 150 milliseconds. They're like puzzle
-builders. They are just piecing together these
lines into letters and shapes, ensuring, for
instance, that D isn't a B. EEG shows early signals
before the N170, and ItMeG maps connections to
V1. And fMRI pinpoints these areas. V4 starts
saying, by the time we get to the last visual
process here of the visual cortex, V4 says, this
is text. This isn't something insignificant.
This is all happening before the visual word
form area recognizes this as dog. Hard stop here,
a cool side note. kind of independent from this
conversation about autism, dyslexia, and reading.
And this is how blind people kind of repurpose.
They have neuroplasticity in this V1 through
V4 areas for reading tactile in the braille.
And they also repurpose these V1 to V4 areas
for auditory sensations. So there's kind of a
heightened area here. Words like amazing and
fascinating don't even describe how wow this
is. Now here's how it works. Typically congenitally
blind individuals or those that luster eyesight
early in life will better repurpose these areas
and these V1 to V4 areas are recruited for that
sensory processing with the BREL. Neuroplasticity
in the human living organism is wild. So let's
talk about two different things here that's been
mentioned several times across the podcast. One
is the heightened so -called heightened sensory
processing and the mechanism by which this happens
is neurooscillations or brain waves. We talked
about those both in several episodes but let's
expand on those. Often I've mentioned the waves
and not really having direct order, but let's
clarify this. The lowest oscillation is delta,
0 .5 to 4 hertz. Theta, 4 to 8 hertz. Alpha,
8 to 12 hertz. Beta, 13 to 30 hertz. And then
there's gamma, anything over 30. However, Gamma
has two different kind of stages, low gamma,
which is 30 to 80 Hertz and high gamma over 80
Hertz. The best way to think about this, I think,
is if you have one trial learning, let's say
you're in a traumatic experience or near tragic,
maybe you're driving in the road and somebody
runs a stoplight and it almost hits you or it
does hit you. At that moment, your body is sent
into these high gamma waves. This means your
body is going to remember this incident much
easier. This is the biggest thing with trauma.
People that experience a traumatic experience,
their body, just all of these brain waves are
sent into high gamma. This is the... so -called
origin of one trial learning. It only takes you
one time to really learn from that experience.
Another example is if you touch a stove or touch
something hot, you typically remember not to
touch that again. However, independent of this
one trial learning, everything operating on our
insides are running on these oscillations. They
are constantly on oscillations. This is a big
indicator of our so -called internal states as
well. Calm or excited, stressed or relaxed, whatever
the case may be here. Just insert whatever. So
let's talk about the sensory processing between
non -autistics versus the autistic phenotype,
especially with reading. So the different brain
waves or frequencies, neural oscillations and
so forth. In non -autistics, V1 through V4 is
operating at alpha waves and beta waves. Alpha
helps you focus, like ignoring distractions while
reading dog. Beta links the V1 to V4, ensuring
those letter shapes come together smoothly. EEG
picks up alpha suppression when you're engaged,
while MEG shows beta connections between visual
areas. Gamma waves over 30 Hz are there too,
but they're less dominant, helping fine -tune
details, like making sure the O in dog isn't
a C. Unlike in autism where gamma waves go into
overdrive, non -autistic brains keep a balance
mixed, ensuring efficient processing without
getting stuck on every detail. FMRI supports
this by showing steady activation in V1 through
V4, not the hyperactivity in autism. In the autistic
phenotype, it's mostly or completely entirely
all gamma waves. This is the so -called heightened.
So let's start making sense of what the eyes,
the retinas are sending back to the rest of the
brain, starting in the occipital lobe. The visual
word form area in the occipital temporal cortex
recognizes letters and words as visual patterns,
acting like a pattern detector to identify familiar
shapes and sequences, such as distinguishing
dog from bog, the temporal parietal cortex, including
the superior temporal gyrus. And the angular
gyrus maps these visual forms to sound, enabling
mental or vocal pronunciation, like sounding
out dog as dog. The inferior frontal gyrus, which
does include Broca, we're not limiting this area
to just Broca. However, it does include two more
little nuclei involved in this process, involved
with integrating word meanings akin to a storytelling
piece to gather a narrative to understand that
dog refers to a pet these regions are linked
by the arcuate fasciculus a white matter track
facilitating communication for phonological and
semantic processing that ensures seamless coordination
if you remember the speech and language episode
We spent a lot of time on the arcuate fasciculus.
It's a white matter track connecting Varanaki
and Broca. Remember, these are two distal areas.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging measures
blood flow to pinpoint active regions, showing
robust visual word form area activation for word
recognition. coming at 150 to 200 milliseconds.
And this is using an N170 for EEGs or M170 for
MEGs. These are the same instruments we talked
about in part two of the sensory processing episode.
Same stuff. EEGs capture electric brain activity
with millisecond precision. and this detects
rapid neural responses like N170 for visual processing
and 400 so roughly 400 milliseconds for the meaning.
MEGs measure magnetic fields and this offers
precise timing and moderate spatial resolution
so within two to five millimeters to map connectivity
between the visual word form area and the superior
temporal gyrus. The temporal parietal lobe handled
phonological processing roughly 200 to 300 milliseconds
and the IFG, the inferior frontal gyrus, supports
the semantic integration happening roughly at
300 to 500 milliseconds. The dual stream model,
the so -called dual stream model here, includes
a ventral stream. This includes the VWFA and
the semantics for familiar words, like instantly
recognizing dog, and a dorsal strain, that temporal
parietal for phonology, for decoding new, and
pseudo words. Hard stop. The pseudo word, for
example, zob. We will discuss this a little bit.
But you should know that pseudo words are very
common in achievement type tests given to mostly
kids. These are things like the Wyatt Ford, the
Weschler Individual Achievement Test or the KTEA,
the Kauffman Test of Educational Achievement.
These are very common types of tests used in
psychological assessments or school assessments,
school placement type of activities here. Diffusion
tensor imaging, DTI, also talked about in the
part two of the sensory processing episode, reveals
higher fractional anisotropy in the arcuate fasciculus,
indicating a strong connectivity here, which
predicts reading fluency. So in other words,
the higher this connection here, the better the
reading fluency. So it might be a good time here
to kind of describe this fractional anastrosophy.
Here on after I'm going to call this FA. It's
just easier. This is, I'm going to give some
easy to understand examples here. This is measuring
water. The DTI diffusion tensor imaging is measuring
water. Diffusion is just nerd speak for movement.
So how water is moving throughout the brain is
what this is doing. with these different connections,
even distal connections, we talked about myelin.
Myelin being like a, the difference in myelin,
well myelination, like driving on an interstate
versus a gravel road. FA, it's measuring this
number. One is optimal, like massive amounts
of water flow. Zero is no good. There's some
disruption going on. So like the gravel road.
So the higher, the better. And if you think about
the myelin being straws, straws having a good
water flow, but if there are kinks in the straws
or the straws are narrow versus wide straws,
there's going to be a disruption of water flow.
If you think about garden hose, if you have kinks
in the garden hose, the water coming out at the
end is massively implicated. The pressure and
water flow here is very weak. It's very frustrating
if you're using a garden hose and that's delaying.
It's delaying this distal connection in the brain.
So those receiving regions post -synaptic connections
and so forth are delayed and we've talked about
this in the sensory processing where the earlier
stops are heightened but the distal connections
are kind of slowed or impaired. And this is going
to come into play later when we talk about autistics
reading and that heightened visual processing
and dyslexics having a weakened FA with these
distal connections. It's going to all make sense
I hope. Silent reading involves something called
subvocalization or silently speaking. Readers
here internally articulate words. engaging in
phonological areas with less of the IFG activating
than oral reading, which recruits the pre and
post -central gyri for motor coordination and
speech production. Now we are silently speaking
to ourselves when we are reading because we are
speaking up to the cortex and other strong areas
of the brain. we are teaching ourselves what
is being read. This is a huge part with learning.
The overall goal of this network here is to efficiently
decode the text and convert it into sound and
derive meaning, enabling fluent reading measured
as words per minute. So either way, reading to
the cell or out loud, you are essentially Speaking.
So let's break down the reading process. Step
one is we are decoding something called orthographic
processing. And this involves the VWFA, that
visual word form area, to identify letters and
words as those visual patterns, like recognizing
book on a page as familiar shape occurring within
150 to 200 milliseconds. FMRI shows that this
VWFA activation and EEG captures the rapid electrical
spike and the MEG localizes it to the occipital
temporal cortex. Remember from the Sensory Processing
Part 2 episode, EEGs are much better at kind
of local distinguishing, local findings and so
forth and EEGs are much easier to use. less dangerous
even. However, MEGs are better for distal connections,
kind of spotlighting the whole brain to see what
is all active. The VWFA's goal is to quickly
and accurately process visual word forms, preparing
the brain for sound and meaning. This is step
one. So what does processing visual word forms
mean? This involves the brain's ability to recognize
and interpret written words as visual patterns,
a key step in reading. This process primarily
engages the VWFA for the initial recognition,
identifying letters and words. This is going
to be orchestrated by this rapid visual processing
that relies on the brain's ability to match that
visual input. stored to the orthographic representations.
Does the brain recognize this sequence of letters,
this sequence of letters that make up this word?
Does the brain recognize this? The role in reading
here is huge. This step prepares the brain for
subsequent phonological mapping and the semantic
integration. This is like step one. If your dominoes
are off and the first domino is off, The second,
third, fourth, everything downstream is going
to be delayed. And this is facilitated by the
arcuate fasciculus. Once again, so the arcuate
fasciculus is involved in reading and speaking.
In fluent readers, this VWFA enables automatic
word form processing. It automates it. This is
what the central nervous system is trying to
do with everything. And this contributes to efficient
decoding. So some disruptions in this, for instance
in dyslexia, the VWFA is underactive and this
leads to delayed N170 and impaired word recognition.
However, the data for autism shows hyperactivity
of the VWFA and that bilateral activation reflect
a visual spatial bias, and enhances the decoding
speed, but not always comprehension due to the
frontotemporal under -connectivity. We've talked
about this a lot with autism, those heightened
connections early in processes, but then downstream,
it gets delayed, it gets disrupted, those more
distal connections. And you should not be surprised
here with this hyperactivity of the visual word
form area because of the visual processing, those
high rates of speed with visual processing. Another
area from the Reza Shadmir episode, the cerebellar.
This is a very underrated area and we'll talk
a lot about the cerebellum today. Purkinje cells
in the cerebellum refine the timing and coordination
of the eye movements. These are often called
saccades. In needing to scan word forms, this
is what it's trying to accomplish here. With
climbing fiber afferents, correcting errors in
real time, and parallel fibers integrating visual
cues. In dysfunction, as seen in the autistic
phenotype, with progeny cells, 25 to 50 percent
cell loss in the autistic phenotype. for Purkinje
cells, and in dyslexia, there's a disruption
of this precise affecting fluent word form processing.
So this process is foundational to reading, linking
the visual input to the sound and meaning through
a coordinated neural network. This is not about
turning the word into visual thinking. It is
about seeing the pattern of the letters for reading
the word. So spelling difficulties. This is an
area of interest here for us. Particularly if
you remember from the Kanner kids and Asperger
kids, as well as those with dyslexia and or the
autistic phenotype as a whole, are best explained
by challenges in the orthographic processing
phase here with additional contributions from
related stage and neural networks. The primary
point in spelling is the orthographic processing
and this is occurring. This phase that involves
the visual word form area for the decoding process.
Now if you think about it, think about that hyperactivity
and autism. With autism, you know about that
black and white thinking as well. This hyperactive
VWFA with that bilateral activation, this leads
to a hyper -focus on spelling, but a poor integration
with phonology or semantics due to that frontotemporal
under -connectivity. Again, more of the Purgenje
cells are involved here, and... an area that
we've recently discussed over the last winter
in several episodes the dorsal striatum the dorsal
striatum is our input area of the basal ganglia
i know a lot of a lot of regions here a lot of
different brain regions here but they're all
very important and fascinating the dorsal striatum
is the input areas of the basal ganglia in other
words this is what's going to coordinate or conduct
the downstream movements remember the basal ganglia
is go and no -go area and two big things here
with the dorsal striatum is it's heavily involved
in learning and goal -directed activity and habitual
responses remember autism and those habitual
responses or the lack of adaptive responses we
can get caught up on things very easily. A second
consideration for spelling difficulties here
is following the orthographic recognition, which
is the phonological processing. This is involved
with that temporal parietal cortex, the superior
temporal gyrus and the angular gyrus, those two
specific areas. This maps spellings to sounds.
disruption of the cerebellar timing via the purgenji
cells affect broca area for articulation and
this can hinder spelling by sound and this leads
to phonetic misspellings for example here phone
f -o -n -e for phone it's very confusing the
Kenner kids were so funny with this if you read
the Leo Kenner 1943 paper Another region of interest
is the arcuate fasciculus. This track reduces
with that F -A in dyslexia, remember that water
flow, and with the autistic phenotype, the connection
between phonological output, the Broca's area,
and comprehension, Ferenke's area. This disrupting
the feedback loop. All of these things are basically
running in a loop updating each other. And this
is needed to verify spelling correctness. In
the Autistic Phenotype, under -connectivity further
complicates integrating spelling rules. There's
a downstream area here for the semantic integration
we haven't discussed yet, but with spelling,
it's important to mention this now. That inferior
frontal gyrus, remember including the broca area,
links spellings to meaning. But this is delayed
using N400 in the Autistic Phenotype. so roughly
400 milliseconds this is supposed to come online
but that is due to the frontotemporal deficit
that under connectivity in dyslexia there's an
over activation and this can lead to semantic
based spelling errors the examples here are something
like there t -h -e -i -r for there t -h -e -r
-e when meaning is more important than Orthography.
Okay, so meaning is more important in this situation
than the orthography part. Spelling difficulties
indicate kind of a bottleneck in the orthographic
encoding, often exacerbated by the cerebellar
cortical loop disruptions. I remember in the
third grade, anecdotal time I guess, I remember
spelling movie. M -O -V -E. And I got it wrong,
of course. M -O -V -I -E. And I just remember
sitting there thinking, looking at movie. M -O
-V -E is like, no, that's right. I was just completely
lost. It doesn't make any sense. If you find
yourself easily confusing and getting stuck on
words like accept and expert while reading, or
words like expectation, extinction or extermination
like I do all of those words kind of look the
same I still get caught up on this even at 45
years old this is likely happening at the orthographic
processing phase with potential considerations
contributions from subsequent stages we have
all of these words spelled the same but have
multiple meanings or Said the same with different
spellings. Many different if -then rules in language.
I just cannot unsee Genesis 11, 1 -9 now. Especially
verse 9. And that's in large part thanks to Veritas.
At 44 Veritas on X. He really captured that for
me. The Tower of Babel. And it's just Babel.
Humans love Babel. A primary point here with
that example like except and expert. White confusion
occurs here with the similar letter patterns.
Except EXCEPT and expert EXPERT share initial
letters EX. This can lead to visually similarity
confusion if the FWVA struggles to distinguish.
subtle differences and both words have a downstream
E P and T very confusing for people like me.
This could indicate under activation or the inefficiency
in that visual word form area as seen in dyslexia
where they have a delayed N170 which reflects
impaired word form recognition. And getting stuck
is difficult with processing beyond these words.
Often whenever I'm reading and I come across
a word like this, I just get stuck. This is likely
a bottleneck in the decoding, possibly due to
erratic eye movements or those saccades, influenced
by cerebellar Pugigi cells, that dysfunction,
and also remember the superior colliculus, which
projects up to the frontal eye fields of the
sensory motor area. top middle of your brain
cortex area. This is heavily involved in kind
of modulating eye movements. Sometimes those
letters in the letter sequencing that form a
word are very challenging. It's all due to that
rapid visual processing and in combination with
the lack of progeny cells. If the FWVA fails
to quickly disambiguate these orthographic forms,
it will delay this process especially if the
dorsal striatum involved with that procedural
learning and the habitual word recognition because
remember the brain is predicting so it's anticipating
what this word might be versus what it is so
that wraps up the decoding or the orthographic
processing which is a very large and very complex
first step so the next step the second step in
reading is phonological processing. We've touched
on it a little bit with explaining the different
kind of phenomenas associated with reading, but
this is going to what phonological processing
is really trying to accomplish. And this is including
that temporal parietal cortex and the superior
temporal gyrus and the angular gyrus. So this
is mapping visual words to their sounds, like
mentally pronouncing book as book. This is like
a translator converting text to speech in your
head. This is occurring at roughly 200 to 300
milliseconds in EEGs and MEGs. And the fMRI highlights
STG and AG activation. The magnetic form measurement,
the MEG, shows arcuate fasciculus mediated connectivity
to the FWVA. And the EEG tracks the timing. The
goal here is to link visual input to phonological
output, enabling pronunciation and aiding with
the comprehension. So here comes the sound. In
phonological processing, the focus shifts to
mapping the recognized word forms. Remember with
the predicting and reading, visualizing the words,
the letter sequencing, to their corresponding
sounds and initiating the groundwork for speech.
We're building up a foundation here to speak.
This process primarily involves the temporal
parietal cortex. And we can speak this or we
can silently speak this up to our cortex. Remember
the Reza Shadmir episode. For speech, this sets
the stage for articulary planning in Broca's
area. which coordinates tongue and speech movements.
This is why I mentioned Dr. Shadmere again because
the Purgenji cells are involved in slowing the
tongue down. And this was shown in his recent
paper. The Purgenji cells refine timing and accuracy
while sounds and speech begin to form here. Actual
vocalization, the speech requires further motor
execution. during reading aloud. But before that
we must have the semantic integration. The inferior
frontal gyrus. Remember Broca. A lot of people
know about Broca. This connects words to their
meanings. Like understanding book as a reading
object. This is akin to the library finding the
right story. And this is occurring at 300 to
500 milliseconds. on EEGs or MEGs. fMRI reveals
this activation of the inferior frontal gyrus
and the EEG tracks meaning processing while the
MEG maps frontotemporal connections. The goal
here is to build coherent understanding especially
for the complex or abstract text. So silently
speaking, that so -called sub -vocalization.
In silent reading, readers internally articulate
words like silent, saying, book, while doing
the reading. This engages the superior temporal
gyrus and the angular gyrus. While the fMRI shows
the temporal parietal activation, MEG confirms
that articulate fasciculus connectivity. The
goal here is to reinforce phonological processing,
aiding comprehension by linking visual words
to their auditory forms without overt speech.
And a big thing here is we are teaching ourselves.
We are speaking up and teaching ourselves like
professing. And this is a big form of learning,
reading out loud. This extends silently reading
to vocalization of the speech. requiring motor
areas to articulate words and manage porosity,
like reading a book aloud with proper tone. FMRI
shows increased motor and inferior frontal gyrus
activation. EEG captures motor related signals
and the MEG tracks articulation timing. The goal
here is to produce accurate and fluid speech
while maintaining comprehension. So let's put
some oscillations on this part of the process
here. In the VWFA, autistic phenotypes spot words
much faster. This is shown with that EEG MEG
and that hyperactivation in fMRI. The delta here
is autistics process this in gamma waves while
Alpha and beta waves are used for non -autistic
brains. Making visual processing extra detailed,
sometimes we have called it heightened. But the
connection to the inferior frontal gyrus, the
storyteller, that Broca region, is weak. MEG
shows low alpha and beta coherence, and EEG catches
a delayed N400, meaning comprehension lags. Especially
for abstract stories. This should be all making
sense to you how autistics have difficulty with
that downstream sensory processing and making
sense of things and needing to catch up. We might
have a hard time keeping up in social situations
and remember the speech and language episode
with the two different types of of echolalia.
The two different sources kind of of echolalia.
One is keeping up. So you must repeat it. This
should be all making sense to you, but I don't
think people understand this. Especially with
assessing the Autistic Phenotype. This is heavily
missed, and I'm telling you that. I know that.
And it should be no surprise here that Articulociculus,
that brain highway, remember with the FA measuring
water, has reduced strength. It is a gravel road.
It is a kinked water hose. From point A to point
B destination example. Let's just use this analogy
that we've mapped out here. There's a destination
point A to point B and there's five stops for
the autistic phenotype. Maybe the first two stops
come fast versus the non -autistic, but the next
three are delayed while the non -autistic gets
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to the podcast, listening to the episode, please
feel free to leave a review or rating. In podcasting,
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